The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The place where erected: Similarly, the place where the memorial stones were erected has also been a part of research studies.

1. Generally, where the person attained martyrdom, that spot was chosen for erecting the hero-stone.
2. The scholarly tradition[1]  maintains that a hero-stone was raised on the spot where the hero fell or where his remains were buried, or alternatively in his native village or in the place where his relatives lived.
3. However, they we either disturbed or shifted to other convenient places.
4. The current position of the materials, however, hardly corresponds to the original one. Many have been relocated inside museums or temple premises, either as freestanding elements or as structural components; but even when found at the crossroads of hamlets, under trees or next to water reserves, one cannot ignore that some transformative process must have intervened over the centuries and reshaped the landscape (e.g. due to the construction of a new road, or to cropland expansion).
5. Archaeological excavations never occurred systematically in the past, so that at present, threatened by increasing urbanization, the veracity of both primary and secondary sources on this issue is de facto unascertainable.
6. Formation of new states / countries and vandalism also responsible for the disturbance or even destruction of hero-stones.

These erected stones at the villages and remote areas might have become distant or deserted places, due to urbanization etc., and thus, slowly neglected and forgotten. The enthusiastic explorers and others, very often claim that they “discovered” the hero-stones and so on!

Stone usage in the Megalith burials and tribals: Man and stone-usage cannot be separated. Modernism and urbanization might have changed the life-style, but, its usage continues, as could be noted, at least in the kitchens. In India, every group of people follow certain “samskaras”  traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies where, stones play an important role. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition in India, as the practice of erecting megaliths in honour of the dead is still found among the tribals living in northeastern, eastern, central and south India like the Khasis and the Garos and the Syntengs of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and the Karbis of Assam, the Nagas of Manipur and Nagaland, the Hos and the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Gonds and the Morias of Chattisgarh, the Kurumbas of Kerala, the Bondos and the Gadabas of Orissa and the Savaras of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Thus, its prevalence in all states can be noted.

Hero-tones in South India: The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu is more than 2400 years old that is 4^th century BCE. According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones is found in the Indian state of Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest in Karnataka is dated to the 5^th century CE. The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (400 BCE) though a vast majority were erected between the 4^th century BCE to 13^th century CE. During this period, the dynasties were fighting with each other, and later I the medieval period resisting the Arab / Mohammedan intrusion into South India. Thus, the Hero-stones inculcated the memory of fallen heroes for their sacrifices to protect their boundaries, properties and power.

Sati – Widow burning was prevalent among all the ancient civilizations:  It has been argued by them that sati, now popularly known and understood as the practice of widow-burning did not originate from the ancient Indians, as it is commonly believed and propagated, but had roots in the ancient Egypt, Greek, and other European civilizations. It was among the Gauls, the Goths, the Norwegians, the Celts, the Slavs and the Tharcians. In Egypt, the processions of a king, Pharaoh were buried along with him or a pyramid built over his body, while in Greece women entered into the pyres of their dead husbands. Similar pyre sacrifices were prevalent among almost all ethnic groups of Europe. In China, if a widow killed herself in order to follow her dead husband to heaven, her corpse was taken out in a great procession[2]. Col. James Tod mentions that Female immolation originated with the Sun-worshipping Saivas and was common to all those nations who adored this as the most splendid object of the visible creation[3]. Here, also, the terms and expressions used have to be understood properly:

1. Sati – Voluntary self-immolation of wife. Getting into a pyre voluntarily, “Udankattai-erudhal” as mentioned in Tamil.
2. Sati – Widow burning – Sometimes, interpreted as forced (as interpreted from Mohammedan and colonial writers).
3. Jauhar, sometimes spelt Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by females, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by Turko-Persian Islamic invaders, when facing certain defeat during a war.

Satikal prominent in and around Rajasthan area: Sati and hero-stones are important and studied in the context. Rajasthan, and nearby areas are prominent with Satikal, because of the Mohammedan atrocities, as they are well-known, they are not discussed. The hero-stones from Central India have emerged from a tribal context and concern tribal chiefs. They are invaluable in understanding attitudes to death and belief patterns of tribes. The hero-stones from Western India reflect the physical and social ecology of the area in their pictographic context. Those that depict cattle raids in their lowest panel are understood as indicators of a dominant pastoral economy of the past. These hero-stones are found only in a specific area of the semi-arid tract of Western India. The hero and sati stones are largely found in Western, Central and Southern India. From Rajasthan We basically two types of hero-stones found. They are Paliyas (single panelled stones) and the Govardhan pillars that have a sculpted top. Sati practice is found in the Tamilndu also as recorded in the literature and inscriptions[4].

Why there were more hero-stones in Karnataka?: The relation between death and memorial stones and glorifying death and other concepts are inter-related and highly spiritual also. S. Settar pointed out[5] how the Jains identified eight types of death grouped under three categories –

1. Bala-marana – childish or foolish death
2. Pandita marana – wise death and
3. Pandita-pantita marana – the wisest of wise deaths

Then there are other types of marana –

• Sanyasana-marana – death through renunciation
• Sallekhana-marana – death through fasting
• Ardhana-marana – death through worship
• Pancapada-marana – death through prayer
• Pantita-marana – death through knowledge or wisdom
• Samadhi-marana – death through mediation etc.,

The Jains used to debate with the Buddhists and Hindus setting “death” as a precondition for the defeated. The Karnaka inscriptions show how the defeated were crushed in oil-mills. However, to glorify them, hero-stones might have been erected for them. Thus, the Jaina literature has elaborately dealt with death and also the Jains erecting monuments for the dead. As the Jains were dominant in Karanaka during the medieval period, the hero-stones were also found maximum there.

The Govardhan pillars: The Govardhan pillars are memorials for those who died in a cattle raid, but battle scene are also depicted at times. Sri  Krishna lifted the Govardhan hill and saved people – thus, lifting the Govrdhan hill is considered as a Herculean task and thus, the name “Govardhan pillar”! A sati would normally be shown by depiction of a couple facing each other. Chronologically, these stones would fall within the 6th to 7th  and 13th-14th century CE periods. The Saurashtra series is of a relatively recent period, belonging to the last three to four hundred years (16^th-17^th centuries). Here the most frequent occurrence is of Paliyas. The Paliyas are normally linked to cattle raids, skirmishes and village disputes. This is similar to the cattle seizing, cattle raiding and cattle recovering practices of the ancient Tamil Sangam people[6]. South India and Maharashtra can be easily termed as the heartland of hero-stones. The hero-stones from Tamil Nadu fall roughly within the 6^th to the 12^th century CE.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Vanamamalai, N. 1975. Herostone Worship in Ancient South India, In Social Scientist, 3, 10, pp. 40-46.

[2]  C. H. Tawney, Kathasaritsaaara, Vol.I, Terminal Essay on Suttee by Pensei, Appendix – I, pp.255-272.  He pointed out that such practice was there among all the ancient civilizations.

[3]  Col. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan , Motilal  Bararasidas, New Delhi, Vol.II, 1971, p.737.

[4] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Sati In Ancient Tamil Literature , A paper presented at 11th session of South Indian History Congress held at Calicut from February 1st -3rd , 1991.

https://archive.org/details/SatiInAncientTamilLiteratureK.V.RamakrishnaRao

[5] Shadakshari Settar, Inviting death – Indian attitude towards the ritual death, Brill, Vol.28, 1989.

[6] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding In Sangam Age, the paper was presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Karnatak University, Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991  https://archive.org/details/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao

When I presented this paper, there was a discussion in which S. Settar asked many questions about Hero-stones of Tamilagam etc.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, IRS (Retd.,)

Guest Faculty and Research scholar,

Department of Ancient History and Archaeology,

University of Madras,  Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Cell: 98402 92065; e- mail: kopallerao@yahoo.co.uk

Stone memorial, rock memorial for the dead: The stones erected whether they were with or without inscriptions and sculptures to commemorate the death or dead persons particularly that of warriors, fighters or soldiers are considered as Hero stones.

• The origin of the commemorative stones are mentioned with different names and expressions – Nadukal, Virakal, Hero-stone, Satikal, Govardhan pillars, Chaya-stambhas, stele, Jaya-stamba, Kirti-stambha etc., in India.
• They are also traced back to megalithic burial practices[1], where the dead were buried or cremated with their favourite goods. Where, the heroes are found to fighting with tiger, horses, elephants, camels etc. Battle field scenes on the land and sea[2] have also been depicted.  
• Considering the vast area of India of the ancient period, the location of such sites spread from Central Asia from the west to Cambodia in the east and down south to Sri Lanka.
• During the last 5500 YBP period, many changes have been taken place and therefore, the available material evidence at present and the accounts recorded in the secondary sources have to be relied upon.
• A big or identifiable stone of weight is placed at the place, where the last rites were conducted, so that the spot could be identified, remembered and yearly rites conducted.
• Irrespective of place, culture and belief system, such tradition, and liturgical practices appeared to have been taking place in the world[3].

Hero-stone, memorial stone or stele in the context: For a comparative study, the western practices are also should be taken into consideration. In the Western context, a stele or occasionally stela, is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than its width, erected in the ancient world as a monument. The surfaces of the stele often have text, ornamentation, or both and they are inscribed, carved in relief, or painted. A traditional Western gravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words “stele” and “stelae” are most consistently applied in archaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt, China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America. Incidentally, India is not mentioned here. A comprehensive and integrated study of the memorial stones is made, the connection among them could be noted. As this is depended upon the religious beliefs like soul, transmigration of soul, life after death, rebirth, karma and other related issues, generally, such belief system points to the East. It is well known that Hindu, Buddhist and Jains believed in them. As Buddhism was dominant during the first centuries and spread far and wide throughout the world, such ideas were also spread along with them[4]. The Pythagorean, Aesop’s fables[5] and other connections have already been accepted by the scholars[6]. Through Pythagoras, the concept soul, transmigration of soul etc., were transmitted to the west[7]. Thus, the commonality can be noted in the global perspective, in the memorial stone erection culture also.

Stone usage continues from Paleolithic to 21st century culture: Stone, forms of stone, stone structures, stone implements etc., have been a common feature of Indians used even today in 21st century. The grinding, crushing, pounding and milling processes are carried on by stones only, but with various forms and fitted with mechanical, electro-mechanical systems for mechanization. Domestic electrical appliances like – Mixies and grinders have been changing their names, sizes, shapes, colours and technology (mechanical, electrical, electronic), but stone cannot be replaced with any other thing[8]. Grinding characteristics of raw and parboiled rice were evaluated in various wet grinding systems, namely, mixer grinder, stone grinder and colloid mill[9]. The rotation of the stone is made vertical or horizontal with one or two or more rotating stones, but, stones continue to form part and parcel of such Domestic electrical appliances. Now, miniaturized kitchen stone tools are also made and sold in the market. Thus, the usage of stone has been part and parcel of man since the Paleolithic age.

Lithic form and size may vary, but purpose did not change: Coming to burial, the other forms are studied. A menhir, standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone also comes under this category. Here, menhir = man + hir = man + tall = tall man or man of repute, thus, a person did something marvellous and thus to be remembered. In the European context, they are called as cromlech (ring of standing stones), dolmen[10] (type of single chamber megalith tomb), henge (type of Neolithic earth work), stone circle etc., conveying and denoting the same depending upon the language and area. As the Paleolithic man and society also believed that man had rebirth and he would be reborn etc., they arranged such stone structures aligning with the cardinal points. Or the sacrificial days had to be remembered once or twice in a year and thus, the near and dear used to come there and pay homage to their fathers, forefathers etc.  In Buddhist rituals, stone circles were used that is pointed out below. As these structures continued to exist for many millions or thousands of years, they would have been subjected to disturbances. Particularly, the grave goods would have been taken away by the categories of tomb raiders and grave looters. Whatever left was discovered by the local village people and archaeologists and studied by the researchers.

For whom the stones were erected?: Researchers on Hero-stones have studied about the cause of erecting memorial stones for the people as follows[11]:

• people who died to protect their livestock from theft; while retrieving it after the attack
• people involved themselves were killed in cattle raiding
• people who died while defending their community and ruler from external attack; people died on the onslaught of a stronghold
• people who died to defend women and children
• people devoured by wild animals, most commonly tigers;
• people who freed the village from the threat of wild animals and died thereafter,
• people who died after a snake bite
• people who committed religious suicide
• women who died in pregnancy or childbirth / suicide victims.
• The warriors / soldiers who sacrificed their lives for saving their villages, towns, state, or territories.

For all these categories, hero-stones / memorial stones were erected and venerated to glorify their sacrifice.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] The Megalithic burials have pits or stone chambers or rock-cut chambers or urns or sarcophagi, etc., externally marked by either one or a combination of more than one of the features like cairn-heap, cairn-circle, stone-circle, kodakkal, topikkal, menhir, etc., and some of the burial types like dolmen are partly buried and partly above the ground and pit burials and urn burials, in some cases, do not have any surface markers. At several sites monuments such as menhirs, kodakkals  and dolmens are without any artefactual remains and appear to be symbolic.

[2] The hero stones kept at the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, Goa (12^th century CE) and Eksar (11^th century CE) in Mumbai have the depiction of naval warfare. The Old Goa hero stones belong to the Goa Kadambas who ruled Goa from 950-1300 CE. The Eksar hero stones were depicted during the reign of king Bhoja of Malwa in 1020 CE.

Tripati, Sila. Ships on hero stones from the west coast of India,  International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35.1 (2006): 88-96.

[3] Construction of tomb, tomb worship etc., of the day have not changed much with all modern day embellishments, as the stone parts of the tomb are manufactured in the factories with sophisticated machinery.

[4] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[5] Aesop’s Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE and they were imitated from the Panchatantra stories of India.

[6] Richrd von Garbe,  The Philosophy of Ancient India (2nd ed.; Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1899).

…………………………, India and Christianity: An Investigation of Religious and Historical Connections, Tübingen, Germany: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1914.

[7] Arthur B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads, ed. C. R. Lanman nHarvard Oriental Series,” Vol. XXXII; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925).

[8]  The manufacturers of mixies and grinders of different categories have R & D sections, where research has been going on about the usage of stones, their sizes and shapes, weight etc. The  body might have been changed with metal sheet, plastic, fibre-glass and other materials for cost-effective, the stones cannot be replaced.

[9] Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., &  Subramanian, R. (2008). Grinding characteristics and batter quality of rice in different wet grinding systems. Journal of food engineering, 88(4), 499-506.

[10] A dolmen  or portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or “table”. Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone “skeleton”.

[11] Trinco, Letizia. Heroes Beyond the Texts: Sacrifice, Death, and After life, in the Iconography of Southern Maharashtra’s Hero-Stones.” Indologica Taurinensia 40 (2014): 341-363.

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28th and 29th 2024 (3).

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28^th and 29^th 2024 (3).

28-03-2024 (Thursday): As I was expecting some photographs, I could not include them in the earlier postings and now included here. The paper, “The precept, concept and evolution of “minor deities” in India,” was presented first on the day with PPT. As only 15 minutes were given, it was wound up and completed. It covered the theme of the seminar, and it concluded with the following note:

Conclusion: In the Indian context, the question of “minor deities” covers thousands of years with many changes, modifications and incorporation. Thus, their representation in the art differs from time to time. Their position today as appearing in situ, at remote places, in the museums, temples functioning and deserted, inside and outside the temples and momentary worship for the occasion and all other exigencies also cannot decide the finality of the status of “minor deities”. In the modern context, to what extent, the syncretization, inculturation and inter-religious dialogue activities can be accepted has to be analyzed. They have to be two-sided and cannot be carried on in one way.

Only the believers of Gods and Goddesses have to be acceptable enough to accommodate all gods and goddesses, as they live in a secular state, if not a secular society. “If believers of Gods abuse Gods, seekers of Gods destroy Gods, faithful followers of one religion question the faith of others and, against all moral and ethical codes and universal principles, conduct pseudo-spiritual and psychological-religious warfare against another religion, then these activities are not “inculturation” but “outculturation”, as religion and culture are inseparable for Hindus[1].

“Theocentric and theocratic eclectics are as dangerous as nuclear, chemical and other warheads. The concept of “My God is your God, but your God is No God” does not foster understanding, co-operation and goodwill. The concept should be changed to “Your God is my God and my God is your God” and accepted by all religions…This is the only way for humanity today. Super God Rivalry, religious superiority, racial / arrogant theology, theocratic world domination and neo-spiritual globalism cannot make “believers” live in peaceful co-existence with others”[2].

In one way, the concept of “minor deities” creates an inferiority complex among the believers, as they have to accept the existence of “major deities.” However,  when kuladevata worship comes, all have to go there to remote places without any discrimination. Thus, such deities continue forever, as long as the believers are there. Only the families should remember their kula-devatas.

29-03-2024 4 to 5 pm: Technical Session – VI was held at the Gallery, parallel and chaired by  Dr. J. Soundararajan, Associate Professor & Head i/c Dept. of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras and the following papers were presented:

Kandasami temple

The 27 sculptures there…

Sculptures of Vethalas

1. Mrs. Geetha C[3] – “Vedhalas Worship in Cheyyur” – Cheyyur Kandaswamy temple is one of the Least Known temples of Tamilnadu. Cheyyur is a place that is located off the East Coast Road about 80 km from Chennai and the main deity of this temple is Lord Muruga who is worshipped as Kandaswamy. The Kandaswamy temple is an ancient temple that was built during the Chola period and it has no Gopuram at the entrance. The temple faces the South and the main deity faces the East. The main Lord of the temple is Sri Kandaswamy with his wives Valli and Devayanai.

There are 27 Vedalams (Bethals) on the inner side of the compound wall of the temple.[4]. These 27 Vedalams are found with their hands lifted up representing the 27 Birth Stars or Nakshatras worshipping Lord Muruga. These 27 Vedalams that are found here are believed to be the 27 Boodaganas who helped Lord Muruga in fighting the Demon Soorapadman. These 27 Vedalams obey the instructions of Lord Bhairava and so you can see the separate deity of Bhairava alongside the Vedalams. The day of Ashtami, that falls after the Full Moon is called ‘Theipirai Ashtami’. This day is considered to be more auspicious for Bhairava. On this day, the devotees worship the Vedalam that represents their Birth star. On the day of Theipirai Ashtami, the Vedala pooja usually starts with Vinayaka Sankalpa, followed by special Archanai for the Vedalams with Red Arali (Nerium) flower. Then it will be followed by Abishekam and Special Archanai for Bhairava with 8 different types of flowers.

Uma presenting paper on Kubera..

Uma presenting paper – audience………

Uma presenting paper – audience- another view

• Mrs. C. Uma[5] – “Kubera – The Lord of Wealth and his influences in Indian Society” – Kubera – कुबेर, also known as Kuvera, Kuber and Kuberan, is the god of wealth, and the god-king of the semi-divine yakshas in Hinduism. He is regarded as the regent of the north (Dikpala), and a protector of the world (Lokapala). His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species, and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and carrying a money-pot and a club. Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic-era texts, Kubera acquired the status of a deva (god) only in the Puranas and the Hindu epics. The scriptures describe that Kubera once ruled Lanka, but was overthrown by his half-brother Ravana, later settling in the city of Alaka in the Himalayas. Descriptions of the “glory” and “splendour” of Kubera’s city are found in many scriptures. Kubera has also been assimilated into the Buddhist and Jain pantheons. In Buddhism, he is known as Vaisravana, the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated with Pañcika, while in Jainism, he is known as Sarvanubhuti.

• K. Bakialakshmi[6] – Jyestha (Thavvai) – Jyestha or Jyeshtha = ज्येष्ठा, Jyeṣṭhā, “the eldest” or “the elder”) is the Hindu goddess of adversity and misfortune. She is regarded as the elder sister and antithesis of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and auspiciousness. She is commonly referred to as Moodevi in South India. Jyestha is associated with inauspicious places and sinners. She is also associated with sloth, poverty, sorrow, ugliness, and often depicted with the crow. She is sometimes identified with Alakshmi, another goddess of misfortune. Her worship was prescribed for women, who invoked her to keep her away from their homes. Jyestha appears in the Hindu tradition as early as 300 BCE. Her veneration was at its peak in South India in the 7th-8th century CE. By the 10th century, her popularity had waned, pushing her into oblivion. Today, numerous ancient images of Jyestha still exist, though she is seldom worshipped. She tried to equate Jyesta with Thavvai (Muthevi, Muthadevi etc) with sculptures of Tamilnadu. Nowadays, learned bloggers have been blogging on different subjects in detail and they can be converted into a book. For example, about this subject, a seven-part blog is available with all information, photos and other details in Tamil[7].

Tavvai sculpture found in Tamilnadu abandoned at several places……

• Ms. S. Nithya[8] –  “Iconography of Vārāhi” – Varahi = वाराही, is one of the Matrikas, a group of seven mother goddesses in the Hindu religion. Bearing the head of a sow, Varahi is the shakti (feminine energy) of Varaha, the boar avatar of the god Vishnu. In Nepal, she is called Barahi. In Rajasthan and Gujarat, she is venerated as Dandini. Varahi is more commonly venerated in the sect of the Goddess-oriented Shaktism, but also in Shaivism (devotees of Shiva) and Vaishnavism (devotees of Vishnu). She is usually worshipped at night, using secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices. The Buddhist goddesses Vajravārāhī and Marichi have their origins in the Hindu goddess Varahi. She tried compare the sculptures, but could not differentiate among the Jain, Buddhist, Hindu and other splinter tantric groups.

Varahi sculpture……..

When many research materials are available in the public domain research has to be new, different and appropriate: If any person, serious researcher, professor or an expert of the discipline attending conferences, seminars, congress or workshop continuously, he / she could find out that how papers are repeated with the material that is already available. The paper presenters, papers who prepares or researcher doing studies on any subject could also find such materials are available already in the public domain. After the advent of internet and the digitization of papers and books, anyone can easily access them. So also others, thus, the source, authenticity and veracity can be verified very easily. Nowadays, the plagiarism software points out, and it has become a tedious process of revising the PhD thesis again and again. The flow, way of expression and writing language also play important role, where the researcher has to maintain his / her individuality.  Therefore, the paper presenters should be judicious enough to take sources, use them properly and come out with new findings or at least new interpretation.

Research should be judicious and independent without bias: Research cannot be putting the “result” first and then finding the source or the supporting materials. Such researcher always tempts to take the material that is favourable and reject or ignore that is not required or against his “result.” The researcher has to follow the rule of “audi alterum partem” (to hear / listen the other side). Thus, a well-seasoned, unbiased and balanced researcher would go into all sources and learn from them. Suppose, if his hypothesis is wrong, then, definitely, he has to change the topic. How Newton discovered the Law of Gravitation, just by looking at the falling apples? Were apples flying in the sky instead of falling on the ground before? No, not at all. Therefore, thinking new is very much essential for a researcher, that too, different from others.

Academically conducted seminar: CPRIIR has self-contained expertise for conducting seminars, conferences and congresses also for many years. I have been attending for the last 30 years. The Director and the staff have been well-trained and they conducted the seminar academically giving an opportunity to the paper presenters. They have been meticulous in carrying out the programme very systematically. I had a feeling, as if I was there on Saturday also!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

30-03-2024.

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[1] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Pollution of Hinduism, a letter appeared in Indian Express, March 28, 1989.

Collins, Paul. “The Praxis of Inculturation for Mission: Roberto de Nobili’s Example and Legacy.” Ecclesiology 3.3 (2007): 323-342.

[2]Sita Ram Goel, Catholic Ashrams, (Letter published in Indian Express March 28, 1989), Voice of India, New Delhi, 1994, p.161. Also, see here: http://voiceofdharma.com/books/ca/ch14.htm

[3] Abstracts, sl.no. 15; p.36.

[4]  Cheyyur Kandaswamy Temple – An Unique Temple With 27 Birth Star Vedalams – https://gosthala.com/cheyyur-kandaswamy-temple-a-temple-with-27-birth-star-vedalams/

[5] Abstracts, sl.no. 33; p.53.

[6] Abstracts, sl.no. 13; p.27.

[7] Vedaprakash, Muthevi, Muthadevi, Tavvai, Mundadevi etc., September 2018;

1. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/11/mudhevi-claiming-as-tamil-goddess-with-race-racial-and-racist-theories/
2. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/11/lakshmi-alakshmi-interpreted-by-dravidian-writers-without-any-basis-mudevi/
3. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-tamil-experts-write-without-caring-for-historical-evidences-and-chronology/
4. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-caught-in-aryan-dravidian-race-interpretation-without-historical-evidence/
5. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/tamil-writers-do-propaganda-without-any-historical-evidences-delving-upon-aryan-dravidian-myths/
6. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/vamacharya-amorous-sculpture-and-biased-research-mislead/
7. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-muttadevi-thavvai-jyestha-devi-dravidian-witers-confusing-and-misleading-without-historical-evidences/

[8] Abstracts, sl.no. 19; p.35.

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28th and 29th 2024 (2).

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28^th and 29^th 2024 (2).

Technical session – Aarti presenting paper

The second day proceedings started with  special lectures by the invited scholars and they delivered their papers. The abstract of their papers were already included in the “Abstract” booklet circulated. As the gods or goddesses taken by each scholar pertains to a state and area, the people of other states or areas may not be knowing, but, the forms may differ, the concept, precept and evolution of such deities overlap, match and even tally with others. As people require such deities near to their places, they were started so with a low profile and small structure. If the popularity increases, then, devotees donate and start constructing a big temple. In due course of time even that temple bigger accommodating other gods and goddesses and also facilities for the vising devotees.

Technical session – audience

29-03-2024: The Special Lectures II were delivered by the following on the topics mentioned against each:

1. Prof. Dr. Choodamani Nandagopal[1] Art historian, UNESCO Fellow and  Tagore National Fellow, Bengaluru.  – “Significant Dynamism of Minor Deities in the Regions of Karnataka”  – After delving oupn philosophy, panchamahabhutas etc., she mentioned about Subramanya, Chamundesvari, Veerabadra, Dandina maramma, Kalabhairava, Narasimha, Cheluvanarayana, Channakesava, Nanjundesvara, Manjunatha, Dharmaraya, Draupati, Yantrodhara Pranavadevuru (Anjaneya) and Bhuta worship
2. Dr. T. Satyamurthy[2], Former Director of Archaeology, Kerala – “Minor Deities in Kerala Art” – Ayyappa shrines and Karpa kavus are there, besides there are a large number of minor shrines of dur-moorthies (evil spirits) like Kuttichattan, Karikkutti, Maranakutti, Kalladimuttan, Bhairavan, Vishnumaya and Chattan, who are important deities in a large number of temples. Added to these deities, in recent years, worship of Thiruvalluvar the author of Tamil work Tirukkural, is found in some rural areas. The deity is purely rural one, in contrast to the agamic Thiruvalluvar worshipped in Mylapore. .
3. Dr. Sudipa Ray Bandyopadhyay[3], Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, University of Calcutta, Kolkata – “The Iconography of Jvara” – she traces that the deity of Jvara to early 9^th cent.CE. Jvara ( ज्वर, Jvaram, lit. ’fever’), also called Jvarasura, is the personification of fever in Hindu tradition. He is the consort, and sometimes the attendant, of the pox-goddess, Shitala. The cult of Shitala-Jvarasura is widely popular in Bengali culture. Incidentally, in Bengali, Oriya and Hindi languages, fever is referred to as Jvara.[5] and Asura means demon. The name Jvarasura is combination of these two words – Jvara (meaning fever) and Asura (meaning demon) – Jvarasura. Thus, Jvarasura means the demon of fever. Jvarasura is disguised as a young servant. Shitala, the consort of Jvarasura is widely worshipped by village folk in whole of North India, as a protector of pox and fever diseases. In Buddhist tradition, Jvarasura is depicted sometimes as consort of Paranasabari, the Buddhist goddess of diseases. In some images, these deities are shown as flying away, to escape from wrath of Vajrayogini, the Buddhist goddess and destroyer of diseases.

Then, technical sessions were started as follows and held parallel also, as there were many papers to be presented.

Technical session – paper reading – audience

29-03-2024 3 to 4 pm: The Technical Session – IV was chaired by Dr. Sudipa Ray Bandyopadhyay, Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, University of Calcutta, Kolkata and the following papers were presented:

1. Dr. Aarti Iyer[4]  – “Transformation of a Hunter’s Son into a Warrior Deity: Understanding the Significance of Vettaikkorumakan” – Vettakkoru Makan (വേട്ടക്കൊരുമകന്‍) is a Hindu deity worshipped in parts of Northern Kerala. This deity is alternately referred as Kiratha-Sunu (son of Kirata) in Sanskrit. Vettakkorumakan is believed to be the son of Shiva by his consort Parvati, born when he assumed the form of a Kirata (hunter) to deliver a weapon known as Pashupatastra to Arjuna. He is mostly and exclusively worshipped in Malabar region of Kerala. The most famous temple of this deity is the Balussery-Kotta Vettakkorumakan temple about 25 km from Calicut. This was once the fort of the Rajas of Kurumbranad. Other prominent temples are at Ramanthali, Nileshwar, Kottakkal, Nilambur, Karaparamba and various places in Kannur district and Kasargod district. He is the family deity of the Rajas of Chirakkal, Nileshwar, Kottakkal, Nilambur Kovilakam, Kalathil Kartha’s, Aluva, Amarambalam Kovilakam and Randu Illam Vargam Nambiars. Those families among the nobility of Malabar who have Vettakkorumakan as their family deity are connected in one way or other incidentally to either Balussery Fort or Kurumbranad.Later he moved to Kottanachery temple in Vellur, Payyanur in North Malabar. A special type of firecracker called “Kathina” was his favourite.

Aerial view of the temple…

The deity inside….

the white colour-leaves neem tree and the devi inside….

1. Dr. V. Preethi[5],  – “Two specific forms of Māriamman in Tamil Nadu” – Neem Tree with white colored leaves is considered as Amman and worshipped by the people to get the desired from the deity. Thiruvavaduthurai is located next to Kutthalam in Mayiladuthurai district which is famous for the ancient White Vampu Mariamman temple. This temple is also considered as guardian and family deity of the people of the region. Also, it is believed by the devotees that the goddess would give the desired boon to the devotees, if they repent and surrender to her totally. She went on to claim that the temple was 2000 years old and so on. She relies upon what the Pujari said about the antiquity of the temple. Though faith is different from historicity and historical evidence, it is better that researchers verify the facts and present papers.

1. Dr. V. Sandhiyalakshmi[6] – “Navagrahā in Icons” – she pointed out that the Indians copied the concept of grihas from the Greeks. From the beginning of the 6^th cent.CE onwards, the iconographic innovation arose and developed. The concept days, weeks, the deities of presiding over days and weeks and related astronomical aspects are confused with the astrology. The seven-day week was known in India by the 6th century, referenced in the Pañcasiddhāntikā. The Garga Samhita, dated to 1^st century BCE or CE, as a possible earlier reference to a seven-day week in India. Of course, there are works Surya Siddhanta and Vedanga Jyotisha (dated to c.1250 BCE). She could not date the “Navagruhas” or the astronomical background of the “Navagruhas”. Though, she was referring to Rig Veda and other astronomical works, she did not mention Surya Siddhanta and Vedanga Jyotisha (dated to c.1350 BCE).

oppo_0

29-03-2024 4 to 5 pm: On 29-03-2024 afternoon, after lunch, Technical Session – V was held at the Main Hall in parallel and chaired by Dr. T. Satyamurthy , Former Director of Archaeology, Kerala and the following papers were presented:

T. Sathyamurthy chaired the session

1. Mr. Sohom Banerjee[7] “Panchananda: A lesser-known Minor Deity of Bengal”
2. Mr. Sanjay S[8] – “Guardian of the Sacred: Understanding the Role of Bhairava as Ksetrapala in South Indian Temples from 10th to 13th century C.E.” – Kṣetrapāla (क्षेत्रपाल).—Kṣetrapāla is consecrated on the South East corner of the temple, for protecting the villages and cities. This is a large image with three eyes. There are figures which are Sāttvika, Rājasa and Tāmasa (having the attributes goodness, ostentatiousness and sloth)[9]. In some places figures having two or four or eight hands are seen. It is presumed that this deity is a portion of Śiva. It is stated in Agni Purāṇa, Chapter 51 that Kṣetrapālas should be figures having trident in the hand. Bhairava is often quite directly the ‘Kshetrapala’ – the Protector (‘Pala’) of the Space or Place (‘Kshetra’) – that is hailed to do exactly this for many a Temple. Indeed, one reads of the Bhairava Murti being directly entrusted with the keys to the Temple and the Night’s solemn vigil after all others have gone home. In Varanasi, There, Bhairava is hailed as the ‘Kotwal’ (‘Castellan’ – although interestingly also translated as ‘Chief of Police’) ; something taken rather literally as applies the police station immediately near to Bhairava’s main Mandir within the city, where the physical position of station commandant is, quite literally, held by a depiction of Bhairava.
3. Dr. J. Sumathi[10]  – “The worship of the nine river deities in Mahamaham festival”
4. Mrs. N. Ushadevi[11] – “Representation of Dasa-Maha-Vidya in Madhubani painting”
5.  Dr. Sivakumar Challa[12]  – “The Legends, Rituals and Worship of Minor Hindu Deities in the Combined Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

30-03-2024.

Sanjay presenting paper

Sanjay prsenting paper audience…

Sanjay presentig paper – audience – LHS

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[1] Abstracts, sl.no. 2; p.8.

[2] Abstracts, sl.no. 8; p.18.

[3] Abstracts, sl.no. 9; p.20.

[4] Abstracts, sl.no. 10; p.21.

[5] Abstracts, sl.no. 21; p.37.

[6] Abstracts, sl.no. 25; p.42.

[7] Abstracts, sl.no. 30; p.48.

[8] Abstracts, sl.no. 26; p.43.

[9]  Kṣetrapāla (क्षेत्रपाल) – https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kshetrapala

[10] Abstracts, sl.no. 31; p.50.

[11] Abstracts, sl.no. 32; p.51.

[12] Abstracts, sl.no. 27; p.44

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28th and 29th 2024 (1).

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28^th and 29^th 2024 (1).

C. P. Ramswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research: C. P. Ramswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research (CPRIIR) have been regularly conducting conferences and seminars on the important topics connected with Indology[1]. They also bring out a journal, “The Journal of Indian History and Culture” regularly[2]. Some of the journals can be downloaded from here[3]. They have also brought out many books during the course of time. It is also affiliated to the University of Madras for doing PhD. Now, they organized a seminar focused on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” on March 28^th and 29^th 2024 at their premises, Eladams Road, Chennai. Their circular gave the details of the seminar, theme etc as follows.

Seminar on the “minor deities”: Indian art and culture have been profoundly influenced by a multitude of deities, each with its own unique attributes, symbolism, and significance. While major deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi have received extensive attention in both art and scholarship, there exists a rich tradition of minor deities that play vital roles in Indian religious and artistic traditions. These minor deities, often associated with specific regions, communities and narratives, have their own captivating stories and iconographic representations. In the ancient world, the veneration of natural powers was embodied by deities, both male and female, held prominence. The examination of archaic sources and archaeological remains has unveiled compelling evidence of reverence for nature manifesting through trees and animals and the symbolic significance of sacred symbols. Minor deities encompass a wide spectrum of beings, including local deities, demi-gods, guardian spirits and divine attendants. They represent the plurality and syncretism of Indian religious traditions, with each region and community often having its own set of minor deities.

“Minor deities” – related issues: Minor deities in Indian art are characterized by unique iconographic features and symbolism. Their depiction in sculpture, painting and other artistic forms reveal intricate details of specific attributes and narratives. These symbols and attributes serve as a visual language that conveys the deity’s role, personality and significance. Some examples of minor deities include the Ashtadikpalakas, Navagrahas, 12 Adityas as well as lesser-known forms of the main gods, such as Shastha, forms of Devi and the avataras of Vishnu, demi-gods in Buddhism and Jainism. This seminar aims to delve into the less-explored world of minor deities in Indian art, providing a platform for researchers to share insights into their iconography, mythology and regional significance.The seminar will encompass a wide range of themes related to minor deities in Indian art, including, but not limited to –

1. Iconography and Symbolism of Minor Deities
2. Regional Variations in Depictions
3. Minor Deities in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
4. Minor Deities in Folk and Tribal Art
5. Rituals and Worship of Lesser-Known Deities
6. Literary Sources on Minor Deities

The proceedings of the seminar would be published to serve as a valuable resource for researchers and enthusiasts interested in the study of minor deities in Indian Art. Additionally, it would foster collaborations among scholars and institutions for future research endeavours in this field.

About the papers: The CPRIIR invited scholars and academics to submit their abstracts of research papers on or before February 25, 2024 emphasizing that the abstracts should be in English and within 500 words in Times New Roman font, 12 point.  It should include the title of the paper, name of the author, institutional affiliation, e-mail address and five keywords.  A short bio-data of the author (s), not exceeding half a typed page, should be sent along with the abstract.  The acceptance of the abstracts would be notified by February 28, 2024. The abstracts should be sent to cpriirconference@gmail.com on or before the closing date. Any other information may be obtained from the same mail address. Outstation participants are advised to make their own arrangements for accommodation. Participants should register themselves on or before March 15, 2024, as they were limiting the number of participants.

28-03-2024 inaugural session – Nandita speaking……….

28-03-2024 inaugural session – Nandita speaking……….another view

28-03-2024 inaugural session – Nandita speaking……….yet another view

28-03-2024 – First day proceedings: On March 28^th, the seminar was inaugurated by Prof Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Chairman, Indian Art History Congress, Professor Emeritus, Banaras Hindu University. With the introduction by Dr Nandita Krishna Director of the Institute and the traditional lighting of “Kuttuvilakku,” the seminar was started. Dr Nandita Krishna explained the theme of the seminar with examples of “minor deities.” Her booklet “Groves and Gods of Tamilnadu” was also circulated. In his hey-note address, Prof Tiwari talked about, “Minor deities and pacifying goddess of diseases – Shitala in Indian tradition and art” and his paper was circulated. Then, the invited speakers presented their papers.

28-03-2024 inaugural session – audience LHS from the podium..

28-03-2024 inaugural session – audience RHS from the podium..

op 28-03-2024 inaugural session – audience LHS from the podium..middle and backside

Sitaladevi – Prof Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari: Prof Tiwari explained about the Sital devi and compared it with Mariamma of South India. The “Saat Sahelis”, or “Seven Sisters or Friends,” generally depicted that included Sïtalå devi. They were ˜Sïtalå, Masånï, Basanti, Mahå Mål, Polamde, Lamkanijå, and Agwanï. Elsewhere, they are ˜Sïtalå, Phulmatï, Camariyå, Durgå Kålï, Mahå Kålï, Bhadrå Kålï and Kålikå Bhavånï. The tradition of the group of seven, with minor variations in names, was thus widespread. There is one Temple at Modhera in Gujarat. Sitala is also depicted with a twelve-armed nude figure is riding on an ass. The few surviving hands have varadåkamudrå, trisula, àamaru, pitcher, and a winnowing fan in the uppermost pair of hands. The sculptors delighted in the classical shape of the dagger, with its efficient double curvature for greater lethal effect, and gutters to drain off blood. But on the other hand, the winnowing fans and brooms, never the stock-in-trade of art, have rustic forms. The literary and inscriptional evidences point to 7th and 13th centuries CE. He concluded that the iconographic features of the goddess were standardized in the 11th century and that images mostly occur with te textual prescriptions in respect of her ass mount and the distinguishing attributes, winnowing basket, sweeping broom, and water-vessel. Though, the majority goddesses Parvti, Lakshmi, Saraswati and others are there, Sitaladevi also became popular.

For illustrative purposes, these photos are added here for understanding the topic, but, not that of the author and they are available in the public domain.

Chitra Madhavan’s Satyaki[4]: Dr. Chitra Madhavan Historian and Writer, Chennai presented he paper on “Satyaki – A lesser known deity.” The Parthasarathi Svami temple in Thiruvallikeni is one of the 108 Divya Desams, praised in the Tamil verses (Pasuram) of the Azhvars or Vaishnava saints. Pey Azhvar, Thirumazhisai Azhvar and Thirumangai Azhvar have sung about the deities enshrined inside the temple complex. It is the processional image (utsava-murti), known as Parthasarathi, from whom the temple takes its name.This east-facing deity is thus called as he is Krishna the charioteer (Sarathy) of Partha (Arjuna). The marks on his face are believed to be caused by arrows shot by the Kauravas having pierced this weaponless charioteer in the Kurukshetra war. The main image on the east side, seen with a white moustache, is worshipped as Venkatakrishnan. This two-armed deity holds the conch (Sankha) but the discus (Chakra) is not seen which is rather rare in a Vishnu image. This is because Krishna did not use weapons in this war. Inside this sanctum are five more deities namely goddess Rukmini, Krishna’s consort; Sankarshana (Balarama), Pradyumna (Krishna’s son), Aniruddha (Krishna’s grandson) and Satyaki (also called Yuyudhana, a warrior and Krishna’s friend)[5]. Yoga Narasimha, facing west, is also a main deity with a flag-post (dvajastambha) in front, just like Venkatakrishnan[6].

Satyaki in the Literature: Yuyudhana (युयुधान), better known as Satyaki (सात्यकि), was a powerful Yadava chieftain of Narayani Sena, belonging to the Vrishni clan to which Krishna also belonged. According to the Puranas, he was the grandson of Shini of the Vrishni clan, and son of Satyaka, after whom he was named. A valiant warrior, Satyaki was devoted to Krishna and was a student of Arjuna. Satyaki strongly and passionately favors the cause of the Pandavas over the Kauravas in the Kurukshetra War. Prior to the war, Satyaki accompanied Krishna to the Kuru capital, with Krishna as the Pandavas’ emissary of peace. He is a witness to Duryodhana’s attempt to arrest Krishna and Krishna’s Vishwaroopa form, though he is not mentioned as one of the few persons not blinded by the apparition. After talks break down, Satyaki leads the Sivi and Vrishni army to the Pandava’s camp. While Satyaki, along with others like Chekitana and Syenajita joins the Pandavas, Krishna promises his army to Duryodhana. Hence, Yadavas sworn directly to Dwarka like Kritvarma fight for the Kauravas, meaning Satyaki has to fight his kinsmen in the war. He provides 1 Akshauhini army to the Pandavas. During the war, Satyaki is the commander of one akshauhini of the Pandava army. According to Bhishma, he is capable of fighting 12 Atirathis alone. After the Kurukshetra war, Gandhari curses Krishna that his clan will be destroyed 36 years later in a fratricidal massacre. Accordingly, the Dwaraka clans fought with each other and killed themselves.

There is a sculpture suggesting how Satyaki protected the Pandavas, when Aswathama wanted to kill the Pandavas by sleeping at the camp of the enemies…

R.K.K. Rajarajan’s “Rare Forms of Gaṇapati”[7]: Next, Dr. R.K.K. Rajarajan  Assistant Professor in Fine Arts, Gandhigram Rural University delved upon, “Rare Forms of Gaṇapati – With Reference to Notes in Tamil ‘Bhakti’ Literature.” Mainly, he relied upon the Tamils of Tamilnadu of even recent day manipulations and tried to show how Ganapati had attracted the Tamilnadu sculptors to accommodate different form in the gopurams, side-wall depictions and wooden chariots / rathas. Treating the origin of “Pillaiyar” (whose child), he brought it under two streams  northern Sanskritic and Southern Tamil. He relies upon Asko Parpola for pointing out that the name Pillaiyar finds its root in the Central Dravidian languages of the Proto-Dravidian family. With later day and recent sculptures, he links Ganapati with Vyasa, Parasurama[8], Vygapada etc., obviously with chronological itch. Moreover, these stories were spun just 100-200 years back and have been lesser than mythologies. In newly constructed temples, the modern sculptures go on add such sculptures, just for present popularity or as per the wishes of some devotees. The illustrative sculptures taken have to be given their dates to compare such depictions are available in the Sanskrit or Tamil literature. When Upanishad mentions about the roots of Ganapati, then, antiquity has to be decided accordingly.

Technical Paper reading session: After lunch, the paper reading session started with the paper reading proceedings. The first technical session was headed by Prof. Choodamani Nandagopal, Art historian, UNESCO Fellow and Tagore National Fellow, Bengaluru. For presentation of papers, 15 minutes time was given. The following papers were presented:

1. Dr. J. Soundararajan  & Mr. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao  – “The precept, concept and evolution of “Minor Deities” in India”
2. Mrs. R. Ramya[9] – “Devmogra – Goddess of worship for Satpuda Tribal people”
3. Dr. Amrita Chakraborty – “Dikpālas: Eastern Indian Variations”
4. Dr. Ramadevi Sekhar[10]  – “Guardian of the Skies: Garuda’s Multifaceted Presence in Texts and Practices”

The Technical Session – II was held at the Main Hall in Parallel chaired by Dr. Chitra Madhavan, Historian and Writer, Chennai and the following papers were presented:

1. Mr. K. Sridharan[11]  – “Annapurani and Annamurti in Art and Temple Rituals”
2. Dr. Parthiban Rajukalidoss[12]  – “Lord of five houses in the hamlet of ten scarlet ixora: syncretism of a folk deity and its temple in Ceṭṭiyapattu, Uṭaṉkuṭi”
3. Dr. S.P. Prem Singh Muthubalan – “Mythology of Isakki Amman Worship in Southern Tamilnadu”
4. Dr. P.C. Muralidharan  – “Worship of deities Garuḍa and Sudarśana as enunciated in Śeṣasamhitā”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

30-03-2024.

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[1]  About the Institute- https://cprfoundation.org/CPRIIR pamphlet-2023.pdf

[2]  About the Journal – https://cprfoundation.org/CPRIIR.html

[3] Journal of Indian History and Culture (JIHC)

• Listed in UGC – CARE (ISSN: 0975-7805) –https://cprfoundation.org/modify_new2022.png ; https://journalcpriir.com/previous-issues/

[4] Abstracts, sl.no.1; p.7.

[5] Indian Express, A Vishnu temple, unique in more ways than one, Chithra Madhavan,Updated on: 08 Feb 2017, 11:15 am.

[6] https://www.newindianexpress.com/chennai/2017/Feb/07/a-vishnu-temple-unique-in-more-ways-than-one-1568080.html

[7]  Abstracts, sl.no.6; pp.14-15

[8]  Reportedly Brahmanda Purana, it is evident that this myth resembles, Dhakshayini / Parvati story and thence, created later period, may be during medieval peiod,

[9] Abstracts, sl.no. 24; p.41

[10] Abstracts, sl.no. 23; p.39

[11] Abstracts, sl.no. 28; p.45.

[12] Abstracts, sl.no. 20; p.36.

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31st to November 2nd 2023 (3)

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities  (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31^st to November 2^nd 2023 (3)

The third day proceedings of the NMMA Workshop for the Southern Region: The following speakers delved upon their respective topics and specialized areas. Though, the topic has been documentation of the objects, the speakers mostly discussed about their findings with their valuable experience with important points.

• Prof. Deivanayagam, Tamil University , Thanjavur
• Shri Nishant Zodape and Shri Yash Gupta, on utilisation of open-source software for creating databases,
• Dr. Muthu Shankar, Head of GIS Applications, French Institute, Pondicherry ,
• Dr Arun Raj.T on strategies for stopping illicit trafficking of antiquities” and ultimately
• Dr Charuta Kulkarni, IIT, Madras talking about INQUA Database on Global South

Prof. Deivanayagam, Tamil University, Thanjavur: speaking on identification of Chola Bronzes. He explained with photographs pointing out the nuances of the bronzes. To understand his speech, one should know other subjects also, as because of his versatile experience, he explained many details about the icons and sculptures.

Cholas’ bronzes: Chola bronzes were typically of deities, royalty and the politically powerful people of the day-all in a distinctive Chola style, classically representative of the human form, and perfectly proportioned. The sculptures are recognizable by the way the bodies are posed. They are always graceful, elegant and sensuous, particularly if a sculpture is that of a couple, such as Siva and Parvati. The bronzes also depict the “mudras” or gestures derived from classical dance. Chola master sculptors created their works with the cire perdue, or lost wax process, which is still in use today.

There are two methods of casting metal images-solid and hollow casting. The required image is fashioned by the stapathi in bees wax. Then the wax model is given several coats of fine clay. The clay mould is then carefully dried under the sun. After a few days the clay mould is ready for casting. When the wax model is prepared and is ready for the preparation of the clay mould, arrangements for the preparation of the alloy are made. The five metals to be used in the alloy and they are -copper, silver, gold, brass and lead popularly known as panchaloha. In actual practice by chemical testing we have found the percentages of the metals as follows:

How manufactured – alloying technique[1]: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Normally bronze is a composite alloy of metals-copper, tin, lead, silver and gold in varying proportions. However analysis of South Indian bronzes reveals that they invariably consist of copper, tin, lead, zinc and iron. Trace elements such as arsenic, antimony, Bismuth etc., have been detected. Above l% is considered as a major element and below 0.1% is considered a trace element, e.g. Copper: 79%: Tin 5%, Lead: 13% Zinc 1%; Iron 1%; Trace elements arc arsenic, antimony, nickel and silver and no gold is Present. Manipulating the alloying elements, different shades of metal were produced. This shows tin has been used. Therefore, the alloy is predominantly of copper, tin and lead. The presence of gold and silver is rare or trace. The clay mould with the wax model inside it is baked skillfully over all the wax. When the alloy is ready, it is poured through the orifice into the empty mould in a thin, even and continuous stream. The molten metals allowed for cooling. Then the mould is broken open and the solid metal image is obtained. The image is given finishing touches by the sthapati. This part, the opening of the eyes of the image is what imparts the exquisite expressions on the faces. This is done under some sort of spiritual inspiration. Sometimes, Stapathis are known to take even weeks to open the eves. The science of Image making is dealt with in the ancient Indian science of Silpasastra (Sculpture Science).

Hollow casting- In this case, the object is moulded in clay and the core is coated with wax, which in turn is covered with a coating of clay. After draining the wax by heating, the mould is used for casting. This method is usually associated with North India.

Patina and patination: A Patina is a thin layer of corrosion, usually brown or green, that appears on copper or copper alloys as a result of natural or artificial oxidation. Patina is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of copper, brass, bronze and similar metals and metal alloys (tarnish produced by oxidation or other chemical processes).On metal, patina is a coating of various chemical compounds such as oxides, carbonates, sulfides, or sulfates formed on the surface during exposure to atmospheric elements (oxygen, rain, acid rain, carbon dioxide, sulfur-bearing compounds. The green patina that forms naturally on copper and bronze, sometimes called verdigris, usually consists of varying mixtures of copper chlorides, sulfides, sulfates and carbonates, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.

Nishant Zodape and Yash Gupta: They explained “on utilization of open-source software for creating databases”. With “access” how the excel can be used for filling up data and create a document.

 Muthu Shankar: He explained about the “South Indian Historical Atlas” with many facilities, but, it is not available to the public. The primary data for the project comprise historical and geographical information collected from a large corpus of south Indian inscriptions besides archaeological data collected from a series of field surveys supplemented with the data taken from archaeological reports of ASI and other institutions.   Workshop/review meetings were held every six months are to evaluate the progress of the work. The atlas was developed as web-browser software allowing different basic GIS display and database querying functionalities necessary for a user-friendly usage of the Atlas. It uses W3C (WWW Consortium) compliant Graphics /Open GIS so that the system can be accessed through the internet. The atlas has a conceptual resilience on how to curate data, compile information from it, and disseminate it through new digital tools available then, even when illustrative examples in the application of data science mehods in historical research was scarce. This resulted in the curation and archival of historical data sets that encourage data-driven inquiries into the past, while integrating data, computational science methods into historical research.

T. Arun Raj, director NMMA, Noida: Talked on “strategies for stopping illicit trafficking of antiquities.” Perhaps, next to Pramod Joglekar, he directly discussed the issue with examples. He pointed out how Alexander Cunningham used to travel on a donkey visiting archaeological and ancient places for collecting details. The ASI at present listed 3697 monuments as protected. He pointed out how the Delhi Iron pillar was brought to the present place and Rajendra Cholas brought sculptures as “war trophy” to Thanjavur. Alexander Rae and others carried on excavations even before the formation of ASI and collected many objects. He left some at Egmore Museum and others were taken to London. Even now, the ASI is struggling to deal and store the smuggled artefacts returned back to India. In Trichy, the sculptures have been lying there for more than 20 years, which were recovered. Though HR & CE recorded more than 36,000 temples and quantified 9,000 bronzes many others appear to be not accounted. However, for the export of antiquities, thousands of applications are filed with the ASI, Chennai and they are pending. Nealy more than 20,000 applications have been pending, because, there are no expert persons to identify the objects mentioned in the applications as “less than 100 years” or not. Thus, the crucial problem comes here. Once the certificate is given, the antique object would go out of India legally. He pointed out that unlike Sri Lanka, India does not have “Heritage Police,” and hence, the illegal export / smuggling out of the antiquities have been going on. He also pointed out as how a lesson has been included in the CBSE syllabus to adopt a monument nearby school, so that awareness is created not only among the school children, but also the public living surrounding the monument.

Dr Charuta Kulkarni, IIT, Madras: Talking about INQUA Database on Global South[2], she explained related issues. Stemming from the PAGES-INQUA supported early-career researcher workshop on “Past Socio–Environmental Systems (PASES)” (pastglobalchanges.org/calendar/26972) in 2020, the INQUA-funded project “The whole is not the sum of the parts: building a synthesis database of past human–environmental systems in the Global South (pSESYNTH)” has initiated research collaborations among paleoscientists from, and/or working on, the Global South and other underrepresented regions of the world (e.g. Australia, Southeast Europe). Pursuing the Integrated, Coordinated, Open, and Networked (ICON) approach (Koren et al. 2022), the overarching goal of pSESYNTH is to establish, articulate and strengthen regional, interdisciplinary teams for studying past socio–environmental systems of the Global South, and to build the first multi-disciplinary paleo database representing its regions.

pSESYNTH primarily focuses on the Holocene (the last 11.7 kyr) because: (i) there is greater spatial availability and better chronological controls of the datasets compared to the Pleistocene, and (ii) the Holocene is characterized by a progressive degree of anthropogenic influence over landscapes, offering ways to explore the evolution of diverse socio–environmental systems. Under the pSESYNTH framework, linking proxies of environmental change with climatic signals and societal processes (e.g. subsistence strategies, growth rates, migrations) will provide baselines to pose and test multiple hypotheses for explaining the trajectories of socio–environmental systems. Specifically, pSESYNTH activities are being developed around three main objectives.

To explore drivers of past environmental change combining a diverse set of proxy information, organized into three themes: paleoecology (e.g. pollen, charcoal, diatoms), paleoclimatology (e.g. biomarkers, stable isotopes, varves, numerical simulations), and archaeology (e.g. radiocarbon dates, phytoliths, archaeobotanical remains, material culture).

2) To quantitatively analyze the links among paleoecology, paleoclimatology and archaeology, with an emphasis on research questions that can be generic across the Global South (e.g. are there connections, or commonalities, between colonial legacies and the evolution of socio–environmental systems in the Global South?) or specific to each subregion (e.g. at what spatial and temporal scales were human–environmental systems coupled or uncoupled to climatic fluctuations?).

3) To share the outputs and products of the project in the form of a database that meets the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) principles (Wilkinson et al. 2016). pSESYNTH participants will capitalize on existing single- and multi-themed databases (e.g. Neotoma, NOAA, PANGAEA, p3k14c, ArchaeoGlobe) in complementing their data contributions in the novel Global South database. Together, the FAIR–ICON principles will underpin the database organization and will ensure geographic coverage, comparability, and accessibility for time-series data synthesis, which is crucial for mainstreaming paleoscience research from the Global South.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

04-11-2023

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[1] T. S. Sridhar (ed.), The Cholas Bronzes – 1000^th anniversary of Thanjavur Big Temple celebrations Sept 25^th to Oct.4^th 2010, The Tamilnadu State Archaeology Department, Chennai, 2011, pp.12-13.

[2] Charuta Kulkarni and others, pSESYNTH project: Community mobilization for a multi-disciplinary paleo database of the Global South, https://pastglobalchanges.org/publications/pages-magazines/pages-magazine/137240

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31st to November 2nd 2023 (1)

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities  (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31^st to November 2^nd 2023 (1)

NMMA workshop first day programme 31-10-2023

National Database of all Monuments and Antiquities: With the objective of preparing a national database of all monuments and antiquities, the National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) was launched by the Government 36 (2007), initially for a period of five years i.e. 2007-2012. In order to complete the documentation process and continue the momentum, this period was extended by another five years (2012-2017) and later NMMA was merged with ASI (October 2017). Delay in setting up of NMMA and lack of planning leading to failure in achieving its objective was pointed out in the previous CAG Report.

Lighting lamp to inaugurate the workshop….

Objectives of NMMA: The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities was launched in 2007. The time frame prescribed for its completion is five years. Documentation and creation of suitable database on built heritage and sites through published and unpublished secondary sources for information and dissemination to planners, researchers, etc. and for better management of such cultural resources. Documentation in a uniform developed by NMMA, of all Antiquities that are available in different formats in the form of Registered Antiquities, Catalogued Antiquities with Central as well as State Governments, Private museums and Collections, Universities, etc. Promote awareness and sensitize people concerning the benefits of preserving the historical and cultural aspects of built heritage, sites and antiquities. Extend training facility and capacity building to the concerned State Departments, Local bodies, NGOs, Universities, Museums, Local communities etc. Help in developing synergy between institutions Archaeological Survey of India, State Departments, concerned Institutions and NGOs to generate close interaction.

• Publication and Research.
• Expected output
• National Register on Built Heritage & Sites
• National Register on Antiquities.

Lighting lamp..

2022 onwards workshops conducted: The NMMA has been conducting workshops on the documentation from 2022 onwards[1] – November 2022 – Greater Noida; December – Guwahati; December – Aurangabad; 2023 January – Bhopal; 2023 January – Bangalore; 2023 February – Bhubaneswar; Why conduct workshops suddenly? As I am familiar with CAG audit, audit reports etc., and reading them carefully, I noted in the 2022-CAG Report[2] that, “It also stated that there was a need for reviewing the existing documentation process/guidelines, identify and revive Documentation Resource Centres (DRC)/State Level Implementing Committees (SLIC), initiate training programmes and workshops at the local levels. …….Since March 2015, no workshop was held to facilitate documentation work, rectify mistakes or to provide clarification to agencies involved in the process. As a result, there was absence of a system for regularly up-grading the technical capability of executing agencies, which affected the work process.”

NMMA workshop= audience view RHS

Three-day workshop at Chennai: A three-day workshop on “documentation of monuments” was held at Keys Select by Lemon Tree Hotels, Katti-Ma, Chennai, Kalakshetra Road, Thiruvanmiyur, organized by NMMA and ASI (Chennai circle) from October 31st to November 2nd 2023. It was inaugurated by  Prof Kishore Kumar Basa DG of ASI by lamping lamp and the proceedings continued with the speeches of Ravikorisettar, Sathyabhama and Samanta. Then, there was a practical session to identify the artefacts, measure their physical dimensions and note them down in the format for documentation. This was followed by photography practice, in which, how to take a photograph of an artefact was demonstrated.

Documenting of antiques will prevent their smuggling to other countries, said Archaeological Survey of India’s National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities director Madhulika Samanta on Tuesday [31-10-2023][3]. “A large number of antiques are getting smuggled out of the country. We do not have any knowledge that they were with us till they are showing up in museums in Europe and America,” she said[4]. She was speaking on the sidelines of a regional workshop cum training programme here on the documentation of monuments and antiques (southern region). “When we initiate legal proceedings to bring them back, we end up losing cases in international courts as we do not have any national data to show that they were with us,” Samanta said.

• The national mission had a target of documentation
• ASI’s NMMA has documented 17 lakh antiques and 58 lakh antiques and four lakh built heritage sites. , and 1.84 lakh heritage sites.
• “But we have published only 11,000 sites so far because the data was collected from secondary sources, including research articles, reports,” she added.

She said unprotected monuments are also getting demolished due to developmental activities. “If universities, state archaeological departments, colleges, organisations come up with project proposals to document antiques, we will recognise them as documentation resource centres and give them grants,” she said.

In India, it is a problem of plenty: “Heritage is our strength. If not managed well it could be a liability,” ASI director general Kishore K Basa[5] said while speaking at the inaugural function[6] pointing out, as for as the antiquities and monuments are concerned, it is a problem of plenty. However, it has to be accepted as positive manner in presenting them. There is a difference between the attitude and approach of the people towards the monuments by the colonial period and till 21st century. During the colonial period, the natives were kept away from te exploration, excavation and heritage management. But, now the citizens have to be taken into account in heritage management. ASI has to work with citizen-centric approach, as money comes from the public. He emphasised the necessity of the documentation of all the monuments, artefacts and others[7]. In the documentation processes, multilayered information should be provided and even children should be made to take an interest in heritage management.

Who is responsible for the illegal trafficking of the artefacts?: Sathyabhama Badrinath talked about, “Objectives of NMMA and future course of action,” tracing the creation of NMMA somewhere in 2006-2007 period under the Five years plan and then extended to 2011-2012. On 01-10-2017, it was merged with the ASI. With te urbanization and looting of antiquities, the monuments started disappearing. Illicit trafficking has been taking place. There have been 4 lakh heritage sites, 3  lakhs of the ASI and one that of Built-heritage categories. The Customs and Postal Department have seized many artefacts, but they are lying and the condition is not known. Thus, she tried to blame the other departments. The private collectors should register with the ASI. It appears that the ASI is interested in adding more numbers in their NMMA register.

Prehistory artefacts, ulture, terminology etc. – to follow European o African model?: Ravikorisettar talked about, “Documentation of Antiquities Chennai circle, Southern region – from documentation perspective.” He explained about the exploration, excavation and recovery of the prehistoric artefacts from different sites of South India. He also listed out the sites according to their location, geographical and geological importance and the nature of artefacts recovered. He also pointed out as to how these sites have been getting affected by quarrying, infrastructure development and climatic conditions.As he has been an expert in the prehistory, he covered most of his findings with slides for about one hour and then come to the issue of documentation, classifying / grouping such prehistoric / paleolithic sites. He pointed out how the lithic objects, cultures and related issues were / are mentioned with different terminology. The European model / terminology is not applicable to India. Thus, Africal example are followed and expression like  “Madrassian complex” is also used. Coming to the upper Paleolithic, it is not known to identify them as European or African model?

Madhulika Samanta – vote of thanks: The Archaeological Survey of India’s National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) director, Madhulika Samanta, has emphasized the importance of documenting antiquities to prevent their smuggling out of the country. Samanta stated that India often loses legal cases in international courts because there is no national data to prove that the smuggled antiquities were originally in India. The NMMA has documented 17 lakh antiquities and 1.84 lakh-built heritage sites so far, but the data published on their website is limited as it is collected from secondary sources. Samanta also highlighted the need to protect monuments from demolition due to development activities.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

03-11-2023

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[1] http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/workshop.do

[2] Report No. 10 of 2022; https://cag.gov.in/uploads/download_audit_report/2022/Chapter 6-062f0de36c49e05.39285992.pdf

[3] Times of India, Director of ASI’s NMMA suggests a way to prevent smuggling of antiquities, A Ragu Raman / TNN / Oct 31, 2023, 19:26 IST

[4] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/director-of-asis-nmma-suggests-a-way-to-prevent-smuggling-of-antiquities/articleshow/104860696.cms

[5] Prof. Kishor K. Basa,  Utkal University Professor (Retired on 31.03.2018), Ph. D. (London); Phone No.: 8895615636; E-mail ID: kishorkbasa58@gmail.com

[6] Times of India, Documenting of antiques will curb smuggling: ASI’s NMMA director, TNN / Nov 1, 2023, 08:17 IST

[7] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/documenting-of-antiques-will-curb-smuggling-asis-nmma-director/articleshow/104872987.cms

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Utility of the subjects and their immediate usage to humanity: Just like tourism, tourism management etc., “History of science and technology”  has been discovered, created and covered under the syllabus and offered as an “elective” subject to the postgraduate students of various disciplines. “History syllabus” has also been formulated to be taught to the students of professional courses like science and technologies, medicine, commerce, management etc., thus, much hype is created with the syllabus to reach and teach history to others.

• No teacher of those subjects proposed such a scheme that they would go and teach “science and technology” to them. 
• So why such exigency arises and for what purpose etc., have also to be analyzed.
• By going through the syllabus, it is clear that the students of professional courses do not gain much by reading such subjects.
• In every subject, mathematics, physics, chemistry, economics, commerce, accounting etc., the origin, progress and development and also the present and future status and scope of them have already been included in the syllabus and taught.
• If fact, their subjects have been and are updated and therefore, such subjects lead to innovative inventions that are immediately converted into parts, accessories, spares, gadgets, appliances, tools and so on useful to humanity.

History of Science and Technology: To write, read, teach and learn “History of Science and Technology”, one need not learn the core subject history, but, the history students cannot understand the “History of Science and Technology,” unless, they are taught from the fundamentals.

• Definitely, all non-history subjects are taught with its origin, which is nothing but history of that subject or perhaps more than that.
• That is how mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology at one side, and commerce, accounts, management, factory physics, industrial chemistry, bionics, mnemonics[1] etc., on the other side are taught in the schools and universities.
•  Though more and more science and technological subjects increase, there is demand for admission.
• However, recently, the subject “History of Science and Technology” is included for the students of history, archaeology, anthropology, numismatics and related subjects with their own formulated syllabus.
• But, they are taught only as history and not as the “History of Science and Technology.”

BCE 5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,5 CE or BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE which is correct?: The scientific study of the origin of the subject “History of Science and Technology”, has been different from the simple subject of “History of Science and Technology, for science students. In fact, under such expected conditions, the history teachers cannot teach the “History of Science and Technology”, to them.

• The concept of “zero” and infinity, decimal number system, calendar, planetary system, etc., have been perplexing even for science students, and therefore, how the history students read and understand them, is not known.
• In fact, for chronology, studying eras, dating and other exercises, history teachers have to understand these concepts. 
• Yet, no history expert is worried about “0” year in between BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE years, while computing.
• Why the Roman numerals – I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X did not have “0” is also not known to them!
• Why the Fibonacci series does not start with “0,” (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc.,) they cannot explain.

These are given only for illustrative purposes and are not exhaustive. Therefore, without knowing “o,” how history teachers would teach about, chronology and related historical developments.

Historical time is linear or cyclic, if “history repeats”!: In science and technology, anything linear or cyclic is understood easily and applied practically, but, in history, nowadays, some historians claim that history is linear and not cyclic. However, having claimed, they have not been able to define exactly how the history has been linear, when “history repeats itself”[2]. Just because, historian has decided take the expression “linear,” he cannot make history “linear.”[3] Again such expertise and elite historians do not bother about the axes and the origin, the zero point. Not only X and Y axes, even Z axis has the other side also.  How then, historians visualize the –ve axes and interpret historical events. Of course, they are totally not bothered as to whether it is 2D or 3D, yet, they prefer to use such terminology in history and historiography.

Using scientific terminology is different from actually working scientifically: Just by using certain terms and expressions, scientific, scientific temper, linear, dynamic, static, etc., at one side and heuristic[4], holistic, euphemistic, epistemological, on the other side, history cannot become scientific or technological, as none of the historical hypotheses, theories and concepts can be tested in the laboratory.

• Earlier, historians used to claim with pride that they should have object in mind, objective mentality and objectivity in dealing with historical facts.
• Now, they assert that they need not have such standards (objectivity).
• Ten historians can write history about the same “object,” and all the ten histories become histories of the object!
• But, science says one is one only; 1+1=2 only, all have accepted universally for thousands of years and it continues.
• Historians and history teachers cannot say in history about anything within a year, 10 years, 100 years… in the same way again and again.
• In India itself,
  • grandfather / grandmother read one history,
  • father / mother read another history,
  • son / daughter read yet another history and
  • now grandson / granddaughter reads still-yet another history!
• This type of history is found in the case of the –
  • Grandfather – Chandragupta Maurya c.324/31 – 297 BCE
  • Father – Bindusara – c.297-273 BCE
  • Grandson – Asoka – c.268-232 BCE

Thus, within three generations, grandfather and father were prehistoric, illiterate and unhistorical also, wheras, the grandson was historic and literate! Again, the grandfather was a Jain, the father Hindu and the grandson a Buddhist! A perfect secular model family!

• In India, there had / have been millions of practices, procedures, and standards followed in day to day life for more than 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 YBP and more. They had / have  and are historical only, unlike their “histories” produced or manufactured by the European Company writers and the 1947-Indian history writers.
• Once a history writer becomes ideological, then, no two historians accept and history in India, it always becomes some sort of TV-debate where four persons come and talk about the same subject in four different ways! They come together only to differ from each other and not to come to any conclusion.

Blind Men and an Elephant: The history writers of the European Companies always mention this “cock and bull story”[5] to denigrate Indians for their acumen[6].  Not only non-Indians have read the sources properly, understood the concept and interpret such stories, but also the listeners, readers and others to verify the authenticity of the stories floated about themselves. The irony has been, this “cock and bull ……….story” has been and is still included in the syllabus and the naïve and gullible teachers go on teach and our students read and appreciate the “idiocy” – stupidity, absurdity and silliness of Indians, and believe that they (the Europeans) only taught Indians how to count, learn and dress properly. More and more “Mayos”[7] have been created to spread such “maya,” and when they would be liberated and brought to light from such darkness[8] is not known.

Any subject is offered as an elective, choice or forced: Again teaching history to other disciplines commerce, economics, management, medicine etc., is different from the teaching of “History of Science and Technology” to history students themselves. Just because, history subject is losing its scope in the academics, the history teachers cannot introduce some syllabus and try to impose the same old stuff on the non-history students.

• The utility, benefit and value of the subject also come into play, when any student selects any subject voluntarily, as an elective or for some other reason.
• The students of the “History of Science and Technology” are interested in progress, development and growth in their studies, research and further pursuits.
• Therefore, they may not be interested in what the dynasties fought with each other, rulers invaded other territories or autocrats made the people suffer.
• Even the social, communal, religious, societal, and other aspects and related issues are also irrelevant to them, as long as they divide people based on any factor.

The utility value of the subject: Ultimately, when job, assignment and employment are decided on the certificates and diplomas received, yet, the application of the learned subject in the field decides the fate of the employee, worker or staff.

• A fitter, electrician, plumber and any other technician after getting certificates, has been ready to work in the field, as he has to carry out his job, as otherwise, he will be sent out immediately on the first day, when he is found that he is not able tp work in his field, in spite of having diploma / certificates in his trade or many certificates including other disciplines. “A jack of all trades but master of none”.
• So also a professionally qualified engineer or doctor or any other expert.
• “If you know the job, come and join immediately,” that type of policy is followed today, walk-in interview, selection and appointment order.
• All the certificates and diplomas come thereafter, just for verification.
• If you have 10 certificates, diplomas and degrees in one discipline or 10 different disciplines, but, you cannot work properly, you will be fired, because, the employers want the work to go on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-08-2023

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[1] Mnemonics is the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory, A mnemonic device (or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding.

[2] Historic recurrence is the repetition of similar events in history. The concept of historic recurrence has variously been applied to overall human history (e.g., to the rises and falls of empires), to repetitive patterns in the history of a given polity, and to any two specific events which bear a striking similarity. Hypothetically, in the extreme, the concept of historic recurrence assumes the form of the Doctrine of Eternal Recurrence, which has been written about in various forms since antiquity and was described in the 19^th century by Heinrich Heine and Friedrich Nietzsche. While it is often remarked that “history repeats itself”, in cycles of less than cosmological duration this cannot be strictly true. In this interpretation of recurrence, as opposed perhaps to the Nietzschean interpretation, there is no metaphysics. Recurrences take place due to ascertainable circumstances and chains of causality.

[3]  In the case of electricity, electronics, computers, digital technology etc., the electric pulse is sinusoidal, digitized to square-shaped pulses and so on. All such processes cannot be brought under any “linear” explanation or interpretation of history.

[4] A heuristic is a mental shortcut commonly used to simplify problems and avoid cognitive overload. Heuristics are part of how the human brain evolved and is wired, allowing individuals to quickly reach reasonable conclusions or solutions to complex problems.

[5] Cock and bull story, far-fetched and fanciful story or tale of highly dubious validity produced by the British county hoteliers / inns to attract their customers.

[6] The Buddhist text Tittha Sutta, Udāna 6.4, Khuddaka Nikaya, contains one of the earliest versions of the story. The Tittha Sutta is dated to around c. 500 BCE, during the lifetime of the Buddha. An alternative version of the parable describes sighted men, experiencing a large statue on a dark night, or feeling a large object while being blindfolded. They then describe what it is they have experienced. In its various versions, it is a parable that has crossed between many religious traditions and is part of Jain, Hindu and Buddhist texts of 1st millennium CE or before. The story also appears in 2^nd millennium Sufi and Baháʼí Faith lore. The tale later became well known in Europe, with 19^th century American poet John Godfrey Saxe creating his own version as a poem, with a final verse that explains that the elephant is a metaphor for God, and the various blind men represent religions that disagree on something no one has fully experienced. The story has been published in many books for adults and children, and interpreted in a variety of ways.

[7] Katherine Mayo, an American lady  and also reportedly a historian wrote a book Mother India (1927) became  a polemical book as it contained many narratives of  grudge, hate and vengeance against Indian – society, religion and culture. Indians do not know any such book has been written about American or European society, religion and culture.

[8] Mohammedan or Mughal court historians always dub that the kafirs (non-believers, non-Mohammedans) of Hindustan were in the jahallia (in the darkness) and they were trying to show nur (light) through jihad (holy war) with their revealed book (al-kitabiya), as the kafirs do not are any revealed scriptures / book..

Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – the second-day proceedings (3)

Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2^nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – the second-day proceedings (3)

The Vdakkappattu prehistoric site

Site lay out plan – above……

Trench details…..artefacts found details below……………..

artefacts list..

sectional diagram of one of the pits of the excavated site…

prehistoric tools found…..

palaeolithic tools found…..

the Pallava period sculpture found..

11-03-2023 – second-day proceedings: Appasamy Murugesan headed the 5th session on the second day. First Kalimuthu, ASI presented his paper on “Archaeological excavation at Vadakkapattu, Tamilnadu.” 500 prehistoric sites in Tamilnadu, but, only a few sites were excavated. Vdakkuppattu, locally called as Nathamedu has been chosen, of course in 1998 itself, it was discovered by ASI. We got many prehistoric tools on the surface itself. Nearly one-half metre height from the ground of the mound has already been disturbed by the local people, as they took out the materials for levelling etc., and levelled for cultivation. Recently, one Sivalinga was found, therefore, the site could have been used for worship. Then he started about the site layout, trenches etc with photographs. ……………..The pallava period sculpture was found. In short, he explained about the excavation carried on at the site. He went on to show different prehistoric tools, beads, glass bangles, terracotta figurines, iron objects, gold ornaments,  broken conical jar, potsherds with graffitis, PGW, bones, and other items found, but, accepting that they could be identified specifically. This excavation has been only preliminary nature. When the chair asked, “any question,” none came forward to ask. Incidentally, most of his presentation has already appeared in the media with sensation. A google can prove with more photographs of the site etc.

paper presented by Aruna Manathunga……

Anuradhapura period…..

Mhavamsa says the encounters between Tamil and Sri Lanka kings…..

Aruna Manathunga – “Polonnaruva- the Chola capital of Sri Lanka”: The next paper presenter was Aruna Manathunga and he had dealt with “Polonnaruva- the Chola capital of Sri Lanka” and he was pointing out that the Colas were the for 70 years.  As per Mahavamsa, the Tamil kings ruled during the Anuradhapura period. Karikalan invaded and carried away 24,000 Lankans used for building dam across Kaveri and Gajabahu in turn took revenge in thousands of Tamil as slaves. In 1173, an invasion began against the dynasties of South India by the Sinhalese king and conqueror Maha Parakramabahu. His armies first captured the Pandyan kingdom, and then advanced into Chola Nadu, attacking the Tondi and Pasi regions. In approximately 1173, the Sinhalese kingdom of Polonnaruwa, invaded the neighbouring Pandya kingdom and overthrew its leader Kulasekhara Pandyan. The Sinhalese monarch, Parakramabahu I ordered Vira Pandyan to be installed to the throne. However due to the Chola king, Rajadhiraja’s increased his involvement in the war, the Chola mainland became a target of the invading forces. After conquering the Pandyan kingdom, the leader of the expeditionary forces, Lankapura invaded the Chola states of Tondi and Pasi, which the Chola inscription describes as “striking fear into the hearts of its residents”. He burnt up to 30 kilometers of the Chola kingdom as a punishment for interference in the war. The captives were sent for works, such as repairing the stupas. Rajadhiraja instructed his general to kill Lankapura. Meanwhile, the fear-ridden residents, started performing for Shiva, expecting for relief from the invaders.The worshippers carried the worship for 28 days, until they received the news Lankapura had retreated. The chief who ruled the village of Arapakkam, Edirisola Subramanam, granted the village to a Hindu priest who helped conduct worships.

He found similarities between SEA and Sri Lanka. About one sculpture, there were varieties of interpretations. These were questioned by one participant and he (Aruna) agreed. For SEA similarity, he showed one structure, for “Karaikkal Ammaiyar,” he interpreted as “Avaloteswar.”

P. J. Cherian – Muciri Pattinam: The epicentre of Tamil classical culture: started paying tribute to I. Mahadevan…..there was continuance maritime contacts between the Mediterranean and India coast…….. The Pattanam archaeological site (N. Lat. 10°09.434’; E. Long. 76°12.587’) is located in Vadakkekara village of Paravur Taluk, about 25 km north of Kochi in the Ernakulam District in Kerala, India. This is a coastal site located in the delta of the Periyar River and is now about 4 km from the Arabian Sea coast. The Paravur Todu, presently a distributory of the Periyar, flows about 1 km south of the site. The river Periyar flows 5 km north of Pattanam. The site is surrounded by palaeo (old) channels, a backwater, lagoons and streams. Though the site is surrounded by marshy areas with saline water, the Pattanam mound has sweet water suitable for drinking, which may be one of the reasons for the ancient settlement there.

second urbanization…

Global Tamil culture, he located on the southwest, because of seasonal / trade winds…..“classical” means, the earlier period was not classical…classical was rural, kinship, social organization etc., inferior to the classical period. Muciripattinam was in no way inferior to the Greek-Roman culture..When Greek-Roman culture is meant, it is implied that all other cultures were non-classical or inferior to Greeko-Roman culture…from that time onwards, a certain type of parochialism crept into historiography…my parochialism that Tamil is superior is also developed…this attitude is continuing in the varied different ways..and such self-congratulating attitude is thoroughly established in today’s world, because of these three forces. Structural forces that existed from those classical time – 1. Straight, 2. Market and 3. Religion. Urban-rural dichotomy played economic imbalance.

Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Chinese civilizations were existing.. pyramidical power structures..existed in the classical period as power structures. Whereas the Tamil culture is more horizontal, and flexible, with rational thinking…1st cent BCE to 3rd cent CE, the Tamil culture spread to three areas – the Mediterranean, middle-east and SEA. Most of the excavated objects belong to the Early Historic period (3rd century BCE to 5th century CE). The objects and features discovered suggest that Pattanam was probably the ancient port of Muziris, or Muciri Pattinam, mentioned in classical Tamil, Greek and Latin sources as a key port in the maritime networks of the period. The Pattanam finds point to the presiding role of the Indian sub-continent in transforming the Indian Ocean into a trading lake[1].

Most of the material related to trans-oceanic trade was found in layers belonging to the Early Historic period. Non-local ceramics such as amphorae, terra sigillata, Turquoise Glazed Pottery, torpedo and ovoid jar suggest these and their contents were brought into Pattanam. The Indian Rouletted Ware sherds in significant numbers mark the links with the Indian sub-continent trade network. Other materials such as glass beads, Roman glassware and stone cameo blanks indicate trade exchanges. In this period, Pattanam seems to have achieved an urban status as seen by burnt bricks, roof tiles, terracotta ring wells and other finds like early Chera copper and lead coins. Pattanam, as presently known, had connections with the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean littorals (from East Africa to the South China region) and with other parts of the Indian subcontinent during various phases in its history spanning three millennia. The uniqueness of Pattanam is that it had contacts with the outside world before the Roman phase.

The frankincense crumbs, Turquoise Glazed Pottery, Torpedo and Ovoid jar fragments from the South Arabian and Mesopotamian regions point to the PreRoman, Roman and Post Roman links of Pattanam, from 300 BCE – 1000 CE. Ample evidence of Pattanam’s Mediterranean connections, during the period 100 BCE – 500 CE, is available at the site in the form of sherds of amphorae, terra sigillata, intaglios, cameo blanks, Roman glass fragments, Roman gaming counters etc. The Blue and White ceramics and other Chinese sherds point to later trade links of Pattanam with the eastern Indian Ocean regions, from 1500 – 1900 CE. Thus, gemstones, glass beads, semi-precious stone beads, inlays, intaglios, cameo-blanks, gold jewellery, copper coins, spices and pottery, vouch for Pattanam’s trade links with the Indian subcontinent and beyond, for much of its history (1000 BCE to CE 2000).

Cherian paper – subjected to many questions: When K. V. Ramakrishna Rao asked him the following questions,

1. What were the material evidences of the ancient Tamil that they had boats and ships to have maritime contacts with the ancient civilizations you mentioned.
2. Why Alexander should have invaded the illiterate Mauryans than the literate Tamils, when the Greeko-Romans were having much contacts with the Sangam Tamils, that too giving the best and taking the best out of them, as you claimed.
3. You claimed that the Greeko-Romans were having pyramidal structure of social hierarchy, whereas, the Sangam Tamil horizontal, thn what about the classification of மாங்குடி மருதனார் , “துடியன், பாணன், பறையன், கடம்பன் என்று இந்நான்கல்லது குடியும் இல்லை ”,

He was responding differently telling that tones teak of others (non-Indians) were found there etc., so he again he requested to give a direct answer, but, he could not give it. For the second question, he accepted that he himself wanted to raise such a question (but, praising the Geeeko-Roma classical culture indirectly). Similarly, about the non-existence of any religious object in the excavated materials,  asked, he could not answer directly. By that time, it was announced that time was over.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

13-03-2023.

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[1] P.J. Cheriann and Jeya Menon, Unearthing Pattanam- histories, cultures, crossings, Kerala Council of Historical Research, can be downloaded from here –

Click to access PAMA_Amity_Excavation_Catalogue_Masterlayout_Unearthing_Pattanam.pdf

Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college, on august 29th and 30th 2019 [1]

 Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college,  on august 29^th and 30^th 2019 [1]

Meenakshi college for women (Autonomous): I have been at the Meenakshi College for several times. I attended the National Conference conducted on “Contribution of Tribals of Tamilnadu” held from June 17^th and 18^th 2006, for which I was the convener. In 2016, I attended “Salvage archaeology and Heritage Management in India” and presented a paper on theme of the topic. Meenakshi College for Women arranged the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ by the Department of History sponsored by the Archaeological Survey of India and ICHR. It was to be inaugurated by the Deputy Chief Minister O. Panneerselvam, but, he could not come. A photo exhibition on excavations was also arranged at the Homibaba Hall, first floor. For paper presenter Rs. 500/- and student participant Rs.200/- was charged as delegate fees. In the file given, no details of the symposium – speakers / paper presenters, heir titles etc., were available, but, one scribbling pad and a pen. It appears that the college conducts such seminar / conference every year. I am attending after 2016, when they conducted seminar on “Salvage archaeology.” This year, as I received information and invitation through e-mail, I could attend. Of course, I take such occasions as an opportunity to meet friends again, as I have been watching them since their student days. In these 35 years, they have become professors, HODs, VCs and some of them retired and getting retired also, as time goes.

For registered delegates, what were given….

After registration………………..

The broadcast of “Fit India”: As already mentioned that he symposium was to be inaugurated by the Deputy Chief Minister O. Panneerselvam, but, he could not come, because of his official preoccupation, it was inaugurated by N. Rajendran, VC of Kaikkaudi University. The Circular No. CBSE/DIR (ACAD)/2019 and Acad- 43/2019 Dated August 26, 2019 issued to all the Heads of Schools affiliated to CBSE on the Subject: Launch of Fit India Movement on 29th August, 2019, which read as follows[1]: “The Fit India Movement will be launched by the Hon’ble Prime Minister on 29th August, 2019 at Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium, New Delhi from 10.00 am to 11.00 am. During the launch function, Hon’ble Prime Minister would also administer a Fitness Pledge. The event will be broadcast live by Doordarshan through DD National, DD News and DD India. All schools are requested to make necessary arrangements for viewing/hearing of the launch function of the Fit India Movement by the Honorable Prime Minister on 29th August, 2019 and take the Fitness Pledge. Details of the participation along with video and photographs should be uploaded on the link https://forms.gle/H4NioqV867jcGjfW9 on or before 30th August 2019”. Accordingly, it was shown up to 11.23 Hrs. Then, the symposium business started.

Note all were watching the direct telecast…..

Fit India, the audience

Indian historiography should be “Bharat centric” and not “Euro-centric” – N. Rajendran: After the introduction of the theme of the symposium by V. Rajeswari, of the college, N. Rajendran started his presidential speech: “I believe what Swami Vivekananda told that men of nerves like steel and body like iron are required to carry out certain  work…..it is said that archaeology is the handmaid of history, in fact, without archaeology, there is no history……. According to Rene Descartes history and literature would not come under the realm of knowledge like science. Many times, it is suggested that the past has to be forgotten, as it is not necessary, but, it is not possible. Man has to live with the past…..Stating that education was based on western ideologies during the Colonial period, laying less importance to Indian ethos and culture, N. Rajendran, Vice-Chancellor, Alagappa University, has said the new draft education policy laid emphasis for providing India-Centric or Bharat-Centric education. during the Colonial period education was based on the Western ideologies and it did not take into account Indian ethos, culture and tradition………….Whether India has the sense of history is the moot question. Rajatarangini fits in the frame of historiography, as Kalhana quoted his narrative based on 18 puranas of which onlt Jivanatha purana is available[2]…………………Definitely Indians had a sense of history. …In this world, every nation’s history has been written by its own person, but, Indian history by foreigner / European. Therefore avoiding “euro-centric bias” Indian history has to be “Bharat centric”……Linguistic skills should be taught to students…. ”

Students as audience looking at

Bharat-centric, what Rajendran talks about

Indian Historians with ideologies and changing ideologies: After becoming VC, he started talking in this way[3]. As I have been listening to them [historians] for the last 35 years, I could note the inconsistency, changeability and contradiction of speech, because of the ideologies followed by them. How they fought with each other at IHC, WAC-III etc., have been discussed y the media, research journals and recorded in the documents. As an executive member of IHC or otherwise, he cannot talk that [Bharat-centric] in the proceedings of IHC. Therefore, while welcoming his changed “ideology” that Indian historiography should be “Bharat-centric,” whether he would continue with such ideas or change, when the government changes in 2024. The so-called historians of India have been imbibed with certain ideologies that is known to all. Most of them have been Marxist and other Communist ideologists from JNU, Delhi University and Universities from West Bengal. In the same way, there have been Mohammedan ideologists who give importance to the medieval period, hailing from Aligarh Muslim University, Jamila Milia Islamia and so on. As I have been attending the proceedings of IHC, SIHC, TNHC, APHC, AIOC etc., for the last 35 years, contesting elections and interacting with the members, I could understand as to how they have been chaging their attitudes towards historiography and ideologies.

12.05 to 12.18 – Dr G. Maheswari, Superintendent Archaeologist, ASI, West Bengal: She talked in very generalized, abstract and  theoretical manner. She appreciated that nowadays, private organizations like Sharma Centre for Heritage Education, India has engaged in the archaeological excavations[4]. She lamented that nowadays, students do not take “history” for their educational pursuit. A book written by Mani was released in between on “Tirumaiyam Fort and Temple.” If history and related subjects are updated and job-oriented, then, only students would come forward to take and read for future benefit.

Dr S. Rajavelu, former prof & HOD, Dept of Maritime History and Maritime archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur – About female terracotta female figurines: After lunch, the symposium started with the presentation of S. V. Rajavelu on “Terracotta figurines found, particularly female”. Generally, it is considered that the terracotta art has been poor-man’s art, but, it is not so, as even royal courts appreciated and promoted it. He pointed out that Harsha Carita, wherein, the king orders to manufacture terracotta figurines for decorative purposes. He pointed out that broken terracotta female figurines were found at Modhur, Mandakappattu, Appukkallu, Kaveripumpattinam, Melapperumpallam, Andippatti and other places.

Quoting from Divakaram, he pointed out that there were 10 types making sculptures with different media:

“கல்லும் உலோகமும் செங்கலும் மரமும்

மண்ணும் சுதையும் தந்தமும் வண்ணமும்

கண்ட சருக்கரையும் மெழுகும் என்றிவை

பத்தே சிற்பத் தொழிற்குறுப் பாவன’’ (திவாகர நிகண்டு – 12ஆவது பல்பொருட் கூட்டத்தொரு பெயர்த் தொகுதி)

1.       Stone 2.      Metal 3.      Brick 4.      Wood 5.      Earth /clay

6.      Mixed clay 7.      Ivory 8.     Coloured sand 9.      Sugar 10.  wax

They were recovered as surface collection and as well as by excavation. In Tamilnadu context, one Shanmugam has written a book on “Tamilnadu Terracotta figurines.”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

01-09-2019

[1] http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Circulars/2019/43_Circular_2019.pdf

[2] But, only, Nilamata Purana is found mentioned and therefore, what he refrrred to is not known. The Nilamata Purana. Sprinagar-Jammu [India]: J. & K. Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, 1968.

[3] The Hindu, New draft education policy is Bharat-centric: VC, SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT JULY 29, 2019 20:03 IST; UPDATED: JULY 29, 2019 20:03 IST.

https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/new-draft-education-policy-is-bharat-centric-vc/article28749347.ece

[4] The Sharma Center for Heritage Education, Chennai (est. 2^ndApril, 1999, Reg. No. 308/4), is a non-profit Public Educational Trust and aimed at promoting research into India’s natural and cultural heritage; and communicating an awareness of this amongst the public. Our areas of contribution are in the fields of cutting-edge research in Indian archaeology, results of which are published in high-ranking scientific journals such as Science.  http://www.sharmaheritage.com/index.php