The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

Sind / Sindh had been part of India / Bhart for centuries, till Arabs invaded and tried to Islamize……

The warriors of Sindh were resisting them with their valour……

However, they could not match with the cunningness of their enemies, when they were following the code of conduct of war etc…..

In 712, the invasion started, within 300 – 400 years, Sindh was Islamized……

and slowly, all the monuments, temples, sculptures etc., started disappearing, as the iconoclasts were destroying them regularly……

now the condition of Hro-stones are like this…….

Hero-stones in Sind: Lower Sindh in southern Pakistan is dotted with many ancient cemeteries boasting the tombs of fallen heroes, and stones erected in memory of their heroism and chivalry (Hero stones). Most of the tombstones bear weaponry depictions symbolizing death in the line of action or at least participation in battle. They are found at Oongar in the district of Thatta, province of Sindh and , a Jats burial site, is located fifty kilometres from the city of Hyderabad, close to the Buddhist stupa of Sudheran in the district of Tando Muhammad Khan, also in Sindh[1]. One finds inscriptional slabs lying all over the site at the cemetery of the Jats but it is difficult to find any inscriptions at all at the Oongar necropolis since all of the chaukhandis have disintegrated and not a single tombstone is in its original condition[2]. In other words, they were destroyed and only parts are available there now. Hero-stones and sati stones found in the Sind province of present Pakistan has been pointed out by many and also noted that they are disappearing[3]. Central Asian and Bactrian areas exhibit broken sculptures of many panels and they are identified and interpreted differently. As the Indian kings / people were massacred there, it is mentioned as Hindu-kush = Hindus blood i.e,  the Hindus were  completely routed and eliminated there, and hence, memorial stones must have been erected. Till “Hindu-kush” occurred incidence at that area, they were there struggling with invading groups. Thus, only left out monuments have been recorded by Auriel Stein during his exploration. After Talibanization, even sculptures in the museums were destroyed and therefore, the fate of the sculptures and paintings found at the sites cannot be imagined.

Memorial stones in Cambodia / Siam / Thailand: In the Siamese culture, schools pointed out about the bloody sacrifice to the Earth Goddess offered at the Door of the Underworld, an ancient tree, a termite mound, a cave, a ring of stones[4]. At the time of the Buddhist ordination ceremony and its site, the Uposatha hall was surrounded by a ring of stones. Michael Wright noted that, “There is no evidence that these stones were developed from anything in India or Lanka, whereas scholars have proposed an affinity with prehistoric circles of rough-hewn stones found in the Northeast.” However, as the South Indian merchant guilds were having close contacts with these areas, there were possibilities that some sailors, merchants and other crew members might have died there and they might have erected memorial stones for them. Stone circles are considered as memorial stones, as noted above. Here, in the Siamese tradition, as there had been mixture of several peoples, the changes noted would be appreciable. Whether such circle stones were used for good or bad purposes – is also difficult to ascertain now. In any case, they were associated with sacrifice / death only.

Interpreting death, last rites and memorial stones in the context of race, language etc., by the colonial and other ideologists: Indians must have had their territory touching the other dominant civilizations like Sumerian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek and Chinese. Thus, their influence on the other cultures has been appreciable. That is why most of the people of the ancient civilizations wanted to come to India.  Indologists were pointing out such similarities and facts during last 150-300 years, but, suddenly changed their attitude. Thus, they changed their theory of the origin of race from the Ganges valley to other places[5]. The historiography was also changed accordingly. The glorification of Indian civilization turned to criticizing even disparaging. This attitude could be noted from the works of William Jones also. With the history writing of Vincent Smith, the Indian history was reduced to 2000 years starting with the Alexander’s invasion / Asokan script. About philosophy, initially, the world scholars accepted that India was the origin of philosophy, thus, every book of philosophy started with Indian philosophy. Thus, the fight started between India and Greece and Indian history has been made to start after Alexander’s invasion, the “sheet anchor of” Indian history. Then, “Aryan-Dravidian” race theory was introduced to dive, but the underlying concepts (rites conducted from birth to death) match with each other. However, the comprehensive and holistic study of Hero-stones gives a different picture. Again, one could note the commonality, in spite of the fact that such practices were carried on far and wide and even chronologically varied from Bronze Age to Modern Age.

Conclusion: Only few examples have been given for each area and state for illustrative purposes. An exhaustive study can also be made incorporating all details after conducting field study and reading local literature. Thus, with limited study and the above discussion, the following points are noted as conclusion:

• The belief in soul, transmigration of soul, karma, life after death, rebirth, cycle of birth and death, etc., have been the basis for the creation of the memorial stone.
• Even during the Bronze Age period, Indian Hero-stones were found in the Central Asia, but, portions were destroyed.
• There is difficult in connecting protohistory with historic narratives in the Indian context, as historians have such thumb rule.
• Logically, scientifically and technologically, such restriction appears to be artificial, inconsistent and redundant considering many other archaeological, material and scientific evidences.
• After the Mahabharat War around 3102 BCE, the participant armies with warriors dispersed and started moving to their destination[6]. However, as some could not reach, they settled down on the way and they became new dynasties and people groups. However, many commonalities could be noted among these people groups[7].  Jains – essences, gymnosophists (people wearing no dress or white dress); Rajaputs – Scythians, etc[8].
• The Hero-stones were found in the areas of Central Asia, Gandhara, Sind and other provinces on the west and Burma, Siam, Kedah etc., on the East.
• That Indic / Hindu / Vedic / Sanatana believing people were living in many parts of the world, at a particular time can also be understood and known from the prevalent of memorial stones and related philosophy.
• Thus, the memorial stone erection had been an Indian practice found from the Bronze Age to 18^th century.
• The dichotomy of dividing Indians based on race, language etc., is also cleared considering the prevalence of memorial stones in different places as pointed out, as “karma” continues!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Memorial Stones of Sindh, Pakistan: Typology and Iconography.” Puralokbarta 1 (2015): 285-298.

[2] . According to the notables of Oongar, village people have purportedly removed many of the decorative slabs either to sell in the lucrative markets in such items or simply in order to decorate their drawing rooms with these valuable pieces of art. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” P.54

[3] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art 27 (2010): 232-238.

[4] Wright, Michael. “Sacrifice and the underworld: death and fertility in Siamese myth and ritual.” Journal of the Siam Society 78.part 1 (1990).

[5] Léon Poliakov. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York, 1974.

As the European Indologists were using the expression “Aryan,” perhaps, even the Sanskrit scholar like B.G. Tilak was misled and tried to locate the Aryan origin to “Arctic region.”

[6]  Even the Greeks were mentioned as “degraded khastriyas,” by old Indologists, but, such details were suppressed later in 20^th century itself.

[7] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[8]  These are discussed by Richrd Garbe, Col. Tod and others linking Christianity with India, lost tribes etc.

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (4)

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (4)

Today, it was raining from the early morning and it continued thereafter also…….

08.01.2024, Monday -10.00-11.30 AM SESSION V: Ethnoarchaeology and Experimental studies: It was chaired by Prof. Kuldeep Bhan and the following papers were presented:

Conservation and Restoration of South Indian Ceramics – Stephen Koob: He had dealt with care, conservation and restoration of South Indian ceramics; detailing, cleaning, choice of adhesive, use of adhesive, treatment and retreatment. The selection and usage of tools for various operations have also been very important in preserving and conserving the objects. About solvable and unsolvable salts, care should be taken in cleaning ceramics. Desalination can be useful for keeping the ceramics in good condition without any further attack. Deionizing tap and such other methods can be used for removing unwanted chemicals deposited on the surface of the ceramics recovered. He also dealt with the restoration for display or publication with practical examples and suggestions. He warned that the potteries, ceramics and similar objects should not be staked, as they might get damaged with their own weight falling on them, as they were already in brittle conditions. Nowadays, modernized electronic and digitized instruments give internal structure of the ceramics and the can be subjected to preservation and conservation processes.

Experimental Reconstruction of a 5th Century Vertical Pottery Kiln, and its Technical Parallels to Harappans – Massimo Vidale: The experimental reconstruction of a Greek kiln of the 5^th century BCE, carried out at the Laboratory of experimental archaeology of the University of Padova, was based on faithful coeval iconographic evidence. It allowed us to appreciate the manifold technical constraints of the yard for the erection of this kind of infrastructure. As the kilns used in Greece and southern Italy between the 6^th and the 4^th centuries BCE have important similarities with Harappan pottery kilns, our experience may provide useful considerations also for the study of Harappan pyrotechnology.

Ethnoarchaeology in the Field: A Cautionary Tale from Potters in Mewar  – Amrita Sarkar: Ethnoarchaeology is an ever-expanding sub-discipline and pottery undoubtedly gets its fair share of attention. However, with recent social and economic trends, it can be seen that opportunities for undertaking certain kinds of ethnoarchaeological study are diminishing. By an interesting coincidence the village of Gilund in Rajasthan, NW India, was host to an important third millennium BCE Chalcolithic settlement of Ahar- Banas Complex in Mewar and at the same time to some of the last indigenous potters still working in 21st c. CE. She showed how the study of prehistoric potters was enhanced by what was learnt from their modern successor and also pointed out that the researcher was only just in time as they will be the last to practice; and in this respect, ethnoarchaeology is itself under threat. The involvement or not involvement of women the pot-making had been natural and not connected with any taboo or gender bias. As the material culture of Indians have been continuously changing, in due course, the pottery-making and related skills might disappear. Even in the traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies, metallic vessels have been replacing the ceramic ware.

11.30 AM -12.00 Hrs – Discussion: There was a discussion about the practical and technical usage of particular clays to withstand the atmospheric and klin temperatures in different cultures. Generation by generation, the potter-makers had / have been forgetting the traditional science and technology followed and practised by them. [the elite researchers have been going on analyzing on the vanishing culture, tradition, heritage and civilization, but, in historiography, they are not pointing out, if such practices of culture, tradition, heritage and civilization are nor preserved, practised and continued.]

12.00- Noon Tea

Ceramic Tradition of Ladakh – P. Anuradha: The Trans-Himalaya Ladakh, a mountainous and rugged terrain, was a vital trade outlet from the Silk Route that connected China with Europe and West and South Asia. Several ancient routes have been discovered in this region. In the recent past, a number of campsites dating to 10000 BCE and 500 CE of ancient travellers have come to light. During their temporary stay, they used ceramics for cooking and serving. According to local belief, during the reign of King Dragspa Bumdle (14^th century CE), the village Likir was assigned to make pottery for the royal as well as the general public. The ceramics have been manufactured in this village and exported to the other parts of Ladakh. However, at present, only a few families are associated with ceramic manufacturing in Likir. In the past, the majority of pottery items were plain and devoid of much decoration. The exquisite and decorative items were reserved for the royals and the elite classes. Over time, this tradition and preferred design have gone through many changes as per the needs of the people. This paper is an outcome of ethnographic documentation, including raw materials used, shapes made as per the usage, and glazing technique of the surviving pottery-making tradition at Likir.

Ceramics in Northeast India: Recent Studies – Manjil Hazarika: The study on ceramics from Northeast India goes back to the 19^th century when several British administrators and researchers contributed through their writings on pottery-making traditions prevalent among various communities. Moreover, sporadic references to these communities are in the Census of India reports published in the last two centuries. Specific studies on the technology, types, artistic features, the community of the potters and their socio-economic background have been dealt with in recent past. centuries. Case studies by anthropologists, archaeologists and historians on the Hiras and Kumars, which are two distinct groups engaged in the manufacture of pottery in Assam, apart from ethnographic accounts of the Naga and Apatani potters have also added significantly to the subject. Pottery from archaeological and historical contexts gained considerable attention with the discoveries of Neolithic pottery during the excavations at Daojali Hading in the Dima Hasao district of Assam in the 1960s. These and pottery from historical sites have provided further details on the craft’s antiquity, chronology, evolution, provenance, and technology. The paper provides an outline of the prehistoric, historical and ethnographic pottery based on our recent studies conducted in Northeast India, especially in parts of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura.

Naga Indigenous Pottery: Disappearing Skills, Knowledge and Vessels – Ditamulu Vasa: This study investigates the most remarkable feature of Naga pottery production: the absolute simplicity of raw materials and tools involved in indigenous and traditional production related to 6 or 7 tribes and districts. She reviewed the manufacturing techniques and tools adopted by the various potters’ communities alongside the ontology of art and clay-winning processes with associated beliefs, taboos, and practices. The number of potters’ communities making traditional ceramic forms using traditional materials and techniques is fast dwindling. However, findings from the ethnographic study conducted among a few surviving potters show the original features handed down transmission of knowledge through generations and analyse the stability and technological changes that have taken place in the pottery community over the last decades. Mainly Female potters controlled this indigenous technology except for the Rünguzu village, where the potters comprised male potters, who had long experiences producing pots, jars, and other clay products.

Ditamulu Vasa showed many examples…..

The next session was chaired by Dr. Peter Johansen and the following papers were presented:

Past and Present of the Pottery Craft of Northeast India – Sukanya Sharma:  From the Northeastern part of India and especially from Assam, the only pottery type known is the Neolithic cord-marked pottery from Daojali Hading dated to 2.7±0.3 ka (LD1728). The ‘Ambari ware’ is the next known type, dated to 1030±105 CE (TF-1019). But the assemblages have no sturdy storage jars or prolific occurrences of a particular design or shape. Pottery found is highly fragmented and mostly of the plain variety. Colours are of different shades of red and black. Medium-sized globular pots, 20-30 cms in height with a rim diameter of 15-20 cms are most common in the Neolithic, Megalithic and Historical period sites. Both handmade and wheel-made traditions existed with certain points of convergence. The paper attempts to map the development of the craft of pottery in Assam starting from a known past through provenance analysis and the theory of utilitarianism. For any tradition to evolve it must be relevant to the community, it has to be continuously recreated and transmitted from one generation to another. Did this fail to happen in Assam as the craft has always co-existed or rather competed with the ‘lignic’ or the bamboo, wood and cane crafts?

Analytical Indexing of the Pottery from 6th to 13th c. CE: Case study of the Ceramics from Ancient Bengal – Lefrancq Coline: In South Asia, the ceramics produced from 5th/6th c. to 13th c. CE are much less known than the ceramics from the so-called Early Historical period (5th/4th c. BCE – 4th/5th c. CE). The lack of well-stratified archaeological contexts and of marker-potteries are some of the reasons. Indeed, the archaeological reports speaks often about ceramics with general terms like “red ware” or “grey ware” without providing a proper description of the technical features making it difficult for the person reading the report to identify the potsherds. Some observations of the archaeologists on the ceramics dated to the period from 6th to 10th c. CE are recurrent like the fact that the ceramics were produced locally and were made for cooking or transport, not for the table service. However, because of the few detailed studies available on the assemblages of this period, it is still difficult to understand the main characteristics of those ceramics and, subsequently to work on provenance studies and trade either local, regional or longue-distance (even if it is known thanks to written sources that trade was well present during that period). The first step is to create an analytical index – either at a regional or pan-Indian scale – that would allow a better understanding of all the technological features of the ceramics in order to easily identify the wares and compare the different assemblages between them. The goal is also to include and enhance the few previous detailed studies. Through this presentation focusing on several case studies (ceramics from ancient Bengal and the Eastern coast of India), I will discuss the different possibilities of classification methods.

Experimental Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology- Pottery Techniques Perspective – S. Udayakumar: Experimental archaeology is a convenient way of describing the collection of facts, theories and fiction assembled through a century of interest in the reconstruction and function of ancient remains. In this experimental pottery technique research, the author is trying to indicate how experimental archaeology plays a very prominent role in understanding archaeology and ancient technology from a different view. Concerning pottery technique, the author has nailed all stages involved in pottery techniques such as preparation of clay, hand-made pottery, wheel-made pottery, coil method, slab method, moulding method, burnishing, pre-heating the pottery and firing method. This experimental research has three major understandings and interrelated aims. The first aim of this experimental research is to understand the basic approach of making pottery and to observe the techniques and method of pottery in the eyes of an artisan and archaeologist. The second is to identify the method or way of burnishing the pottery, to know the clay moisture during the burnishing of the pottery, and to analyse the outcome of burnishing pottery after firing. Third, to see the role of the firing method in pottery techniques in an open pottery kiln. This experimental research will give the whole light to understanding the pottery techniques. With concern to the ethnoarchaeology approach, the author has undertaken systematic fieldwork of pottery techniques in the parts of Tamil Nadu (Kota pottery, Nilgiris, Manamadurai, Villapuram, Mambedu) and Karnataka (Pottery town and Nandi hills); ethnoarchaeology research will talk about the migration of artisan, materials involved in the pottery making and firing methods.

He also showed how the pottery was made….

4.00-4.15 PM Discussion

How to differentiate pottery of medieval and later medieval period pottery, particularly, when they were found as “surface collection.”  Coline replied that it was vey difficult to do so.

How to differentiate between man-made and wheel-made pottery? Udhyakumar replied that thickness and the wheel impression found at the bottom are for identification. However, if they are plastered sufficiently, then, it is difficult to identify.

Sukanya Sharma was asked about the correlation of the pottery with temperature of different period pottery, she responded affirmatively.

6.00 PM Tea break

SESSION VI: CHRONOLOGIES AND SCIENTIFIC DATING

Chairperson: Prof. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer . He was asking audience to come and sit in the front, as the session was important.

Revisiting Bronze Age Ceramics of Gujarat – Kuldeep K. Bhan: Recent archaeological data suggest that during the Early Harappan (ca. 3200-2600 BCE) and the Early Harappan – Mature Harappan Transition (ca. 2600-2500 BCE), there was a migration of agro-pastoralists of the Indus cultural tradition in the Gujarat region. The routes are not precisely known. But it appears that the people met and interacted with a diverse set of people who were already present in Gujarat, as indicated by the presence of distinct pottery traditions of the Bronze Age of Gujarat. Presence of these pottery traditions had mostly been overlooked. These potteries now have been well documented at the sites of Loteshwar, Nagwada, Padri, Somnath, Rangpur and Lothal – representing, what is usually known as Micaceous Red Ware, Anarta, Padri, Pre-Prabhas and Soarth ceramics. In order to understand the cultural relevance of these wares it is important to understand the spatial and temporal distribution, typological and other cultural material associations that seem to provide most of the information about how to look at these various cultural traditions. Based on the present literature, archaeological data and the typological studies of these wares an attempt is made to hypothesize an Early Harappan Tradition (Regionalization Era Ca. 3300 BCE) was very well prevalent in Gujarat that finally led to the emergence of the complex cultural mosaic that has been known as the Sorath Harappan Domain, (borrowing the terminology of Posshel) during the second half of the third millennium BCE.

Bhan thanked all his gurus, teachers, colleagues etc…..

Tracing the Origins: Investigating Chalcolithic Ceramic Traditions in Gujarat, India – Rajesh S.V: Marine seismic technology is pivotal in underwater archaeology, particularly in exploring submerged ancient civilizations resulting from historical climatic shifts. Given that more than two-thirds of our planet’s surface is covered by vast water bodies, traditional survey methods prove inadequate for visualizing sedimentary layers, human-built structures, and lost cities concealed beneath. Fusing marine seismics with sophisticated seismic interpretation techniques yields a profound advancement in marine archaeology. Seismic attribute analysis adeptly identifies nuanced data variations, hinting at the presence of shipwrecks, submerged edifices, and artefacts. Seismic inversion, in turn, refines data, offering insights into the archaeological site’s age and the preservation status of its relics. Incorporating 3D visualization provides multifaceted perspectives, facilitating meticulous excavation planning. The amalgamation of seismic inversion methodologies with multi-point geostatistics, as exemplified in the Mumbai offshore region (Ambati et al., GGGG, 2021), serves to model subsurface structures and pinpoint anomalies in sedimentary deposits. This comprehensive approach fosters non-invasive investigations, mitigating the need for destructive physical excavations. Not only does it unearth archaeological features, but it also supplies vital information about their attributes and geological context.

Relative Chronology, Ceramic Typologies and Communities of Practice: Historicizing Ceramic Consumption Practices in South Deccan Mortuary Ritual – Peter Johansen: Since its inception, South India’s cultural history sequence has been reliant upon a ware-based ceramic typology to order its relative chronology. Radiocarbon and stratigraphic analyses have demonstrated that the hard chronological lines between archaeological cultures and their periodicity are more fluid than commonly acknowledged. A re-evaluation of Neolithic mortuary ritual, and its associated ceramic consumption practices, point to the very early production and use of slipped and polished ware pottery – e.g., black-and-red ware, as serving vessels in localized South Indian funerary contexts. These findings trouble the epistemological foundations of South India’s ware-based relative chronology and point to important theoretical and methodological problems with the use of ‘archaeological cultures’ as analytical units that seek to understand cultural practices and deep history. This paper will discuss the development of ceramic consumption practices in Neolithic and Iron Age mortuary ritual practices in the South Deccan. It argues for an approach to chronology, and indeed history that focuses on ceramics in the context of particular communities of practice through which social relations and meaning were negotiated and distributed through particular cultural activities rather than simply using ceramics as imprecise markers of time and the proxies of totalizing, ahistorical archaeological cultures.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

08-01-2024

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (3)

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (3)

07.01.2024, Sunday

Museum (DakshinaChitra Heritage) and Field (Mamallapuram [Mahabalipuram]) Visits

08.30 AM Tour starts from IIT Madras

10.00 AM Arrival at Dakshina Chitra  – Traditional welcome and briefing

10.30-12.30 Noon Museum tour

12.30-1.00 PM Heritage Museum Bazaar

1.00-1.30 PM Lunch in Kanali Hall

1.30 PM Departure from Dakshina Chitra

2.30 PM Arrival at Mamallapuram

2.30-3.00 PM Welcome Refreshment

3.00-6.00 PM Guided Tour of Mamallapuram – Dr. Dayalan Duraiswamy

6.00-7.00 PM Sunset at the beach

7.00-8.00 PM Dinner at Tamil Nadu State Tourism Hotel

8.00 PM Depart from Mamallapuram

9.30 PM Arrival at IIT Madras

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

07-01-2024

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (2)

History, Science and Technology of South Asian Ceramics – The Proceedings of the Third International Conference in Commemoration of Iravatham Mahadevan 2024 (2)

06.01.2024, Saturday academic proceedings: The session II was about “Graffiti and inscribed potshred” chaired by Prof. Massimo Vidale held between 10-11 AM with the following papers:

Ceramic Chronologies of Tamil Nadu: An Overview by K. Rajan and R. Sivanantham: Rajan presented the paper, delving upon the following: In recent years, Tamil Nadu witnessed tremendous progress in field archaeology. The recent excavations conducted at Pattaraiperumpudur, Vadakkupattu, Perumbalai, Budhinattam, Kodumanal, Vembakottai, Keeladi, Algankulam, Adichanallur, Sivagalai, Korkai and Thulukkarpatti supported with intensive explorations provided certain basic information on the ceramic sequences.

The ceramics are unearthed in two contexts, one from the settlement which is used in day-to-day life and another from the graves, mostly ritual in nature. Though both settlement and grave met with black-and-red ware, but it needs to be understood in the given contexts. Likewise, our understanding of the stratigraphic positions of various kinds of ceramics, namely white painted black-and-ware, plain black-and-red ware, black slipped ware, russet coated ware, rouletted ware, NBP and other wares such as torpedo jar, amphorae, Arretine, Turquoise Glazed pottery, etc., encountered in Early Historic Tamil Nadu need to be analysed in the backdrop of inscribed potsherds.

More than 10,000 graffiti inscribed potsherds and more than 1500 Tamili (Tamil-Brahmi) inscribed potsherds have been unearthed to date. These were engraved with personal names on the shoulder portion of the pot, a social context marker. In the same way, there is a region-specific ceramic such as russet-coated ware, which are found only in Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.

However, its presence in other regions reflects its commercial or cultural contacts. Thus, they attempted to understand the contextual position of each ware and their stratigraphical and chronological settings based on the data collected both from excavations and explorations.

He started cautiously what is early historic, iron, or Neolithic – is a big issue as for as the Tamilnadu is concerned, yet conclude with the following results:

Megalithic – 7000-3000 BCE

Iron Age – 3000-700 BCE

Early historic – 700-300 BCE

When the north India was enjoying copper age, south India Iron age and were contemporaries

The Tamilnadu early historic period goes much before Asokan  period.

Ceramics in the Indus Tradition: Technology, Gender and Ideology – Jonathan Mark Kenoyer: The long trajectory of pottery making documented at the sites of Mehrgarh, Nausharo and Harappa provide a unique opportunity to understand the changes in ceramic technology over time in the Indus Tradition. During the Regionalization Era, or Early Harappan Phase (5500-2600 BCE) the production of pottery in Baluchistan and the Punjab regions will be examined in terms of its association with household crafts and later household industry. During the Harappa Phase of the Integration Era (2600-1900 BCE) Indus ceramic production became quite diversified and involved a wide range of production modes, from household industry to mass production of common wares for use in the urban context. There is also evidence for highly controlled workshops producing elite symbols of power, such as stoneware bangles. Various types of production were involved in these different workshops, including hand building, coil and slab construction, moulds and carved pottery. The firing was also carried out in different types of kilns, including covered pit kilns, updraft kilns and high firing reduction furnaces. During the Late Harappan Phase or Localization Era (1900-1300 BCE) new production technologies, pottery styles and kilns were introduced. The role of women, men and children in ceramic production over time will be examined using comparisons with ethnographic data as well as the study of fingerprints and footprints on pottery. The production of pre-firing and post-firing graffiti on pottery as well as pottery decorative motifs will also be discussed to show the possible role of women in the development of writing and ideological symbols that became important during the Harappa Phase.

11-11.30 AM – Address  by Prof. V. Kamakoti, Director – IIT Madras: He could not come, because of his pfeoccupation.

Prof. Amitabh Pande, Director – Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya MoU Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department and Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute: The MoU documents exchanged between the parties.

11.30-12.00 Noon Tea and Inauguration of Live Potters’ Workshops: The workshop was conducted demonstrating how the man-made and wheel-made potteries were manufactured.

12.00-1.30 PM Third session Tradeand Culture contact:  The third session was chaired by Prof. K. Krishnan and the following papers were presented:

The Manifestation of Rouletted Ware – Dayalan Duraiswamy: [not presented today] Rouletted ware is a deluxe ware of the early historic period. The continuous rolling motion of the roulette produces the patterns. These decorations are found on black, grey, red and black-and-red wares. The distribution pattern of rouletted ware in India shows a concentration all along the eastern coast, mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. This pottery is also reported from Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Egypt, Oman and Yemen – a strong association of the ancient maritime trade centres. Thus, it is important evidence for exchange between South and Southeast Asia from the 3^rd century BCE to the 3^rd century CE. Initially, this pottery and/or rouletted technique was thought to have come from the Mediterranean. However, later evidence substantiated that the pottery was produced somewhere in Asia. He discussed the probable origin, evolution and diffusion of the ware, the nature of the fabric, types of rouletted or chattered decoration, and its regional variation, dealing with the comparative study of the geochemical analysis and the archaeological data of the pottery from various sites.

Impact of Roman Wares on Indian Early Historic Ceramics Repertoire: Stratigraphic, Visual and Typological Analysis  – Sunil Gupta: Dealing with the occurrence of Mediterranean pottery in the stratigraphy of Early Historic sites in western and southern India, he started comparing with the IVC. Mortimer Wheeler observed in his report on the excavations at Arikamedu, the coastal trading station on the Tamil coast, that the ‘uninterrupted’ occurrence of Mediterranean amphorae in the Arikamedu strata signified regular Roman sea trade in the BC-CE transition as compared to the ‘spasmodic’ Ptolemaic ventures to India. Similarly, another well-known archaeologist, M.S. Subbarao of M.S. University of Baroda, was of the view that the appearance of the fine Red Polished Ware at a certain point of the Early Historic horizon in western India was indicative of Roman trade contact, the allusion being that the fine RPW derived from the deluxe Roman red wares. H.D. Sankalia voiced the same opinion as Subbarao, dividing the Early Historic stratigraphy at the site of Nevasa on the basis of the appearance of Mediterranean amphorae and the Fine Red Polished Ware. He  emphasized that the initial separation or demarcation of Mediterranean derived red wares in Early Historic India is stratigraphic more than visual or typological. From this stratigraphic understanding, it is possible to examine closely the various Roman red ware and amphorae imports as well as a range of fine red wares which appeared suddenly on the western coast of India and triggered a red ware tradition which permeated into northern and peninsular India. In fact, the red fabric techniques were adopted in the terracotta tradition, with Roman inspired doubled moulded figurines appearing in western India. He intended to demonstrate with the aid of stratigraphic profiles, drawings and photographs and some site videos played in the workshop.

Ceramics and Interactions in the Early Historic Indian Ocean Region  – Selvakumar V: Ceramics is one of the well-preserved materials indicating long-distance cultural interactions. Ceramics were traded as commodities and also they were used as storage containers for commodities. Ceramic wares and other glass wares were used by the sailors and traders and some of them were also probably traded. Amphora jars were used for the transport of wine, olive oil and fish sauce. They are distributed across several sites in South Asia. Similarly, West Asian ceramics such as TGP and ovoid jars are found at several sites. Rouletted ware and associated ceramics are one of the widely distributed ceramics materials of Indian origin. Inscribed ceramic sherds are also distributed across the Indian Ocean suggesting the nature of the individuals who travelled across. Terra sigillata is reported from a few sites in South Asia. These ceramics are mostly found in coastal port sites and market centres. He discussed the patterns in the distribution of ceramics in the Indian Ocean region with a specific focus on South Asia.

He responded to the querries:

How these goods were imported and exported so that they were available at the different places?

Scientific analysis done on the ceramics point to a common source.

Changing colour of the ceramics – oxidation and reduction for ging red and black colous.

The significance of black and red colour potteries.

Next session was chaired by Sunil Gupta.

Introducing Diversity in South and Southeast Asia Cultural Exchange: Combined Analyses of Ceramic and Ornament Technological Systems Bérénice Bellina and Aude Favereau: Research on commercial exchanges has long been dominated by texts and exotic imported products, leading to a homogenous and elitist view of the groups involved; commonly mercantile and/or religious elites. More rarely have studies focused on imported common/everyday craft products or those produced locally and involving exogenous stylistic and/or technical elements (i.e., ’hybrid’ products), which are indicative of different modes of interaction. Moreover, studies of different assemblages are often compartmentalized: local vs imported, ceramic vs ornaments. However, every configuration of industry provides different information, such that the comparative analysis of technical systems enriches interpretations. This is particularly the case for pottery and stone ornaments omnipresent in ports and their hinterlands. This paper offers a diachronic synthesis of comparative studies of the different categories of ceramic and ornament assemblages from Southeast Asian ports and related to South (imports, hybrid, inspired), providing a chrono-technological sequence spanning almost a thousand years. Do the proportions of the different categories of imports vs hybrids vary over time? Are there changes in the production systems (raw materials, technologies used, etc.)? If so, what can be inferred about the South and Southeast Asian groups using them and their cultural interactions? This research shows how cross-fertilising studies of the technical systems of ceramic assemblages and finery enrich our understanding of both South and South-East Asian groups, the exchanges they had with each other and how they evolved over time.

From the East to the West: Investigating the Presence of South China Sea Ceramics in South Asia – Aude Favereau: Research on the movement of people and goods from the Mediterranean world to China via South- and South-East Asia aroused a great deal of interest, particularly on cultural exchanges that occurred by the end of the 1st millennium BCE and the beginning of the 1st millennium CE. Evidence of contact between communities in the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea basins during this period highlighted complex cultural interactions involving the exchange of artefacts but also the dissemination of technologies and styles. But what about the circulations from East- and South-East Asia to South Asia? Were there imported ceramics or vessels used to carry commodities? Are South China Sea ceramics known in South Asia? She proposes –

(1) to review the ceramics of South Asia reported in the literature as being potentially linked to the East and to assess what is known about these vessels in South-East Asia;

(2) to introduce a selection of ceramic types that circulated widely in the South China Sea and that are also found at sites facing the Bay of Bengal in Myanmar to question whether these types travelled up to South Asia; and

(3) to make inferences about interactions and exchange activities during pre- and protohistoric times.

Torpedo Jars of Mesopotamian Origin at Vadnagar – A Tale of Interaction During the 1st Millennium CE– Abhijit S. Ambekar, Ananya Chakraborty and Amol Kulkarni: Recent excavations at Vadnagar have identified certain ceramic traditions dating back to the 1st millennium CE. This period witnessed the appearance of new wares such as Red polished ware, Coarse grey ware, Black burnished ware, and among imported ceramic types -Torpedo jar sherds and turquoise glazed ware (both non-Indian in origin). Among these, the latter distinct ceramic types indicate a relationship of the Indian subcontinent with the Western world (including Mesopotamia) and its overall cultural and economic connections through seaborne trade. The significant quantity of torpedo sherds discovered across various locations and cultural layers at the site highlights a considerable demand and supply to Vadnagar. Torpedo jars had likely served as vessels for transporting liquid commodities such as wine, oil, or other valuable food items over long distances. The presence of such a large number of torpedo jar specimens not only entails substantial import demands but also implies the affordability of the inhabitants residing in an urban centre such as Vadnagar. These findings collectively indicate a sense of prosperity among the town’s residents and direct or indirect commercial ties with neighbouring regions and the Western world over a millennium.

Next Stephen Koob chaired the session – IV, “Terracotta, stoneware glazing and residue analysis,” and the following papers were presented.

A Matter of Colour: An Insight into the Colouring Technologies of Indian Glazed Ceramic Tiles -Maninder Singh Gill: Glazed ceramic tiles in medieval to pre-modern India were coloured and decorated using a relatively restricted palette of colorants. The glaze colorants were typically oxides of metals – either natural minerals or synthetic products – of which the oxides of cobalt and copper were the most frequently used to obtain shades of blue. Other colorants used include oxides of manganese for purples and synthesised compounds of lead and tin for yellows and greens. The colorants were added to a fritted glaze or, at times, painted over the ceramic tile body, before the firing sequence. Published results of scientific investigations indicate that the colorants and colouring technologies have specific distinguishing regional characteristics. This paper, which combines available analytical findings with evidence in historical records, enables inferences to be drawn on the original materials and technologies of glaze colouration, and assists in elucidating artisanal practices that were being followed for the glazing of ceramics at that time.

Which Way Forward for South Asian Ceramic Sociology? Three Vignettes from Medieval Mewat – Mudit Trivedi: Ceramics encode and mediate relationships. Through these mediations these ordinary objects influence and determine our social relationships. They inform how we cook, eat and store foods and shape our notions of self, other and relation. South Asian studies of ceramics have attended to distinct aspect of Ceramic Sociology in several different ways: through detailed ethnoarchaeological studies of production communities, through equally detailed studies of the skills and learning demanded in standardized production, through discussions of the role of caste in ceramic production, use, exchange and formal variation and by developing multivariate techniques for the recovery of distinct sociological patterns of ceramic use. Yet, a typological, formal and technical focus often outweighs the potential of ceramic sociology in South Asian archaeology. This paper will provide a review of ceramic sociology in the context of both South Asian archaeology and archaeological theory more widely. It will then review exemplary case studies. In addition, drawing upon fieldwork in the region of Mewat (Rajasthan), which provides insight into profound ceramic changes over the medieval era it poses and explores the following questions: What is a midden? What architectural arrangements inform ceramic social relationships? How do we understand the coming of glazed wares?

Ceramic Residue and Indian Archaeology, the Past, Present and the Future – Kalyan Sekhar Chakraborty: Since its first application in the 1970s, lipid residues absorbed and adherent to the surface of unglazed ceramic vessels have provided crucial information on foodways and ceramic utilization. Ceramic residue analysis is a technique that extracts and analyses the microscopic and molecular remains of food items to reconstruct the nature of food items that were once processed, stored, served, and consumed in unglazed ceramic vessels. Despite the robustness of this technique and its successful application across the world, its application in Indian Archaeology is far from adequate. In those few attempts where ceramic residue analyses were incorporated into Indian archaeology, they were primarily carried out abroad. In this presentation, he discussed the current status of its application, how this technique has solved some of the pertaining questions related to Indian archaeology, the future of this technique, and whether we should mainstream ceramic residue analysis in Indian archaeological investigation.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

06-01-2024