Why certain archaeologists should make hue and cry about the findings of skeletons, skulls and bones? – forensic anthropologists vs archaeologists (2)

Why certain archaeologists should make hue and cry about the findings of skeletons, skulls and bones? – forensic anthropologists vs archaeologists (2)

Many Indus Valley Civilization-type skeletons found In India before and after 1947: The human skeletons were found in the Mohanjadaro-Harappan sites since 1922 from India before and after 1947 as follows:

• The archaeological site of Mehrgarh is located in Baluchistan of Pakistan
• Kalibhangan – The site is located on the left riverbank of Ghaggar, in the northern part of Rajasthan, about 310 km northwest of Delhi. Kalibangan means black bangles by local dialect because the countless fragments of black terracotta bangles found scattered over the site.
• Lothal -This site is located in the Delta of Sabarmati River, Gujarat.
• Dholavira – This is an archaeological site of Kutch district in Gujarat state of India. The site is the fifth largest Harappan site ever discovered in Indian subcontinent
• Rakhigarhi – It is a village in the Haryana state of India, around 150 kilometers apart from Delhi
• Harappa –  Harappan Civilization was named after this type-site situated now in Pakistan.
• Mohenjo-daro This site is one of the largest settlements of Harappan Civilization ever discovered. It is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay discovered this site as early as 1922.
• Farmana This site is located in the Rohtak district of Haryana state.

Here, in all such excavated sites, forensic experts were present or not; samples taken for genetic studies; results published; how they helped the archaeologists to improve their hypotheses and theories of Aryans, Dravidian etc., are not known. Pitchappan with all the data has been inclusive or does not assert boldly about the researched genetic evidences  that the living here – had been Dravidian or otherwise. Here, modern-day experts of forensic experts, forensic anthropologists, anthropo-archaeologists, archaeo-anthropologists and related experts could object to each other for their individual methodology adapted and adopted in their respective studies. Just because, for specialization, each new expert-group created cannot dictate terms with others, as every discipline would claim the superiority, expertise and excellence of their subject.  So because of their inter-disciplinary rivalry, the material evidences cannot suffer and Indians should not be misled by their biased, ideologized and partial reports.   

Post-1980 grouping of skeletons: Several skeletal series came under anthropological scrutiny during the post‐1980 era[1]. Important sites studied include:

● Mesolithic: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves (Sri Lanka), Bagor, Kanavaypatti, Deulga rock shelters, Kalpi, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Bhimbetka, Lekhahia, Damdama.

● Harappan: Rakhigarhi, Sanauli, Farmana, Harappa, Mohenjo Daro (Pakistan).

● Neolithic–Chalcolithic: Ieej, Balijapalli, Banahalli, Budhihal, Tekkalakota (restudy), Inamgaon, Daimabad, Tuljapur Garhi, Hullikallu, Agripalli, Chinnamarur, Peddamarur, Tharsa, Kaothe, Walki, Ramapuram, Nevasa, Chandoli (restudy), Apegaon, Mehrgarh.

● Megalithic: Khairwada, Borgaon, Erladinne, Raipur, Kanyathirthum, Kodumanal, Naikund, S. Pappinayakkan Patti, Anaikkaraipatti, Kodanginayakkanpatti, M. Kallupatti, Mahurjhari.

● Historic–medieval: Kumar Tekri, Padri, Jotsoma, Roopkund, Chaul, Sanjan, Kuntasi, Bolpur.

Do the archaeologists neglect skeletal remains?: The forensic anthropologists note that archaeologists have not been so interested in the study of skeletal remains[2], “Human bones were never a priority area of research in Indian archaeology. Bioarchaeology in India, on some levels, is still hindered by the attitudes of archaeologists, which resemble those of American scientists of decades past”. So, already here our archaeologists have been compared with the American archaeologists.

Larson also is quoted[3], “Unaware of the potential of human skeletal remains, many archaeologists view them as, at best, an irrelevance, and when encountered in situ as objects whose excavation is time consuming and which somehow does not constitute “real” archaeology.” Here, the anthropologists have to be asked whether they really consider them so.

Along the same lines, the late S.S. Sarkar, a biological anthropologist at the University of Calcutta, wrote[4]: “I have felt that archaeologists of this country are not yet so interested in skeletal remains as they are with potsherds. I tried to ascertain in certain cases as to what happened with the excavated skeletal remains, their whereabouts, or the completion of their reports, but I failed to obtain a scientific answer from any quarter. And if those facts were available, some lacunae in our knowledge would have been filled up … The reconstruction of the skeletal remains should not be considered at par with pottery‐washing and mending.” (Sarkar, 1972: x). so even such trend continues in 2024 has to be analyzed to find out the fact. The response of the archaeologists in this regard also should be known and recorded.

Specialization, formation of new subjects and inter-disciplinary research: for job-market and other economic factors, now the same subject is studied with different banners, syllabus and school also. As the students of science and technology have also been struggling to get jobs, they also enter into other subjects for getting jobs. Moreover, with their scientific background, they could easily grasp and understand other subjects like history, anthropology, archaeology, forensic science, forensic anthropology, remote sensing etc. Thus, they too compete with others. However, none can dictate terms with others or expect others to give all data and information on a platter, so that he could start his research immediately. No non-archaeologist could grab all the work done by archaeologists for several days, months and even years. Therefore, inter-disciplinary studies would foster academics and not inter-disciplinary rivalry or accusations.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-04-2024

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[1] Walimbe, Subhash R. “Human skeletal studies: Changing trends in theoretical and methodological perspectives.” A companion to South Asia in the past (2016): 482-495.

[2] Walimbe, Subhash R. “Human skeletal studies: Changing trends in theoretical and methodological perspectives.” A companion to South Asia in the past (2016): 482-495.

[3] Larsen CS,  Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human skeleton. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Bush, H, Zvelebil, M, editors., Health in past societies: biocultural interpretations of human skeletal remains in archaeological contexts. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum, 1991, p.5.

[4] Sarkar SS., Ancient races of the Deccan. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1972, X.

The excavation carried on at Chettimedu on the banks of Palaru basin in February 2024 by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madras

The excavation carried on at Chettimedu on the banks of Palaru basin in February 2024 by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madras

The located site is near a Church….

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Archaeology, excavation and findings in Tamilnadu: Archaeology, excavation, artefacts, dating of objects, Keeladi and such other words and expressions become “buzz words” in Tamilnadu[1], as politicians to ordinary people talk about at least once in a week or so. Some news would be coming in the media about something about all these things. Enthusiast explorers and others always come out with some stories that they “discovered” so-and-as sculpture, broken or abandoned idol here at some remote place and so on. However, they never bothered to investigate why they have been there in such conditions for many years. Ironically, many times, they are already known to local people, who are periodically visiting those places and villages and onlookers. In fact, 10 years back, already such “discovered” news would have been published in some local newspaper. Yet, such news is catchy and hence they are published again generously. If one has some friend in any media house, such news would appear immediately.

You-tube archaeology, history etc: To what extent, this news and coverages would create an impact on the general public, academicians and others have to be noted. Nowadays, You-tube hs also become famous and hence, such videos immediately swarm the cyberspace wying with each other and uploading exaggerated and hence misleading stuff also. Ironically, the you-tube enthusiast archaeologists do not bother about the science and technological facts, but, mix everything and make sensational stories. About the Chettimedu excavation, already, sensational videos have come up and attracting the viewers. Cyber plagiarism has been so easy, immediate and attractive, even the original creator, author and writer would be bombarded with such pirated and plagiarized stuff. The You-tube stuff would be of such nature that even academic snobbery would be afraid of. After Keeladi, some sort of cold war appeared to have between the Central and State archaeological departments.

About CABA: Recently, the Government reconstituted the Central Advisory Board Archaeology (CABA) over seven years since its last meeting. It is meant to strengthen contacts between the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and those in the field of archaeological research. The ASI re-constituted the board with the Culture Minister as the chairperson and including officials from the Culture Ministry and ASI, MPs, nominees of State governments, representatives of universities, scientists and experts on Indus Valley script among the members. It is revised for a period of three years. The board will meet once a year and its functions would include advising the Centre on “matters relating to archaeology” referred to by its members. It may also make suggestions on such matters for the consideration of the Government. It also set up a Standing Committee of the board to be chaired by the ASI D-G. It also allocates funds for each state related to the sites identified for excavation.

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University of Madras getting permission from the GOI: The GOI granted permission to carry out excavation at Chettimedu vide order dated 05-02-2024[2]. Based on this, the students and professors from the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras, proceeded to excavate at the sanctioned site.  As last year students could not get permission, they were debuted to different sites for getting excavation experience. This year, after getting permission, the students landed there with enthusiasm. Interestingly, a female student just delivering a baby landed there with the baby, taking a room to participate in the excavation. Her husband also accompanied and really, we have to appreciate the boldness of the girl to land there with her family to conduct an excavation. And there have been certain students with ill-health, yet they too joined the excavation.

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Excavation started yielding good results: As part of the excavation that began on February 5, four trenches (CTM 1, 2, 3 and 4) were laid to understand the cultural sequence of the site[3]. Among them, two have been completed and excavation at the other two is in the last stage[4]. Based on preliminary analysis, the material evidence and layers could be divided into five cultural periods:

1. First from the Neolithic period,
2. second from the Iron Age,
3. third from the Early Historic period,
4. fourth from the Early Medieval period, and
5. fifth from the Medieval period from when red ware dominated. A Ceylon Man-type coin from the Chola Period was collected from the last one.

They have unearthed an ancient burial site of a child with a pot beside it likely dating back to the Neolithic period, at Chettimedu Pathur in Chengalpattu. The professors involved in the excavation said it is rare to find burials dating back to the neolithic period, which is between 5000-1500 BCE, and added it would be sent for dating to various laboratories in India to ascertain its exact age.

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The location of Chettimedu: Chettimedu is situated about 14 kms northwest of Nerumbu, another site excavated by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madrasi 2022.

A still closer view also shows that the site is situated on the Palar basin, but, now surrounded by the houses.

As Palaru has dried up, the banks have been shrunk with urbanization and the number of houses have been increasing. However, the agricultural activities continue, as could be noted from the fields surrounding the houses. While the old temples are neglected or relegated to less importance, new temples have come up.

Now, ironically, the site has been located within the compound of a Church.

A closer view shows the site as follows

The aerial view shows the newly constructed church and the adjacent site chosen for excavation

University of Madras researchers have found a neolithic site with burial remains of a child at Chettimedu Pathur near Chengalpet, around 77km from Chennai, in what is being deemed a rare archaeological find[5]. Along with potsherds of burnished grey ware, a neolithic period characteristic, the researchers found rare Chola-era coins, potsherds of black slipped ware, black slipped ware with graffiti marks and bricks from the early historic period (Sangam era) and Iron age red slipped ware with designs in black[6].

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The site could be dated between 2500 BCE and 3500 BCE: The site, they say, could be between 2500 BCE and 3000 BCE[7]. “Only a few neolithic sites including Vellore, Dharmapuri, Salem have been reported so far. Even in those sites, burnished grey ware was not found. At this site, we found burnished grey ware with a burial which is very rare,” said Jinu Koshy, in-charge of excavation, department of ancient history and archaeology, University of Madras[8]. Burnishing involves polishing a pot using items with a hard smooth surface such as pebbles or leather for a shiny look. “Burnished ware has not been not found anywhere in the state except at Valasai in Vellore district,” he added.

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What are the objects recovered there: Initial exploration at Chettimedu Pathur showed hopscotch, bone tools and brickbats, different types of potsherds as well as burnished grey ware, burnished red ware, black and red ware, all-black ware, red slipped ware, red ware and coarse red ware. A few potsherds with graffiti marks were on the surface of the mound due to soil erosion and human activity[9]. “To understand the context of the cultural material at the site, we began excavating on Feb 5,” said J Soundararajan, associate professor, head-in-charge, department of ancient history and archaeology[10]. Four trenches were dug and preliminary analysis of the material evidence shows the layers could be from five different cultural periods. “Another important artefact is the red slipped ware having designs painted with black pigment and design resembling pottery types from the chalcolithic period, especially Malwa culture[11]. The painted type of potsherds found in Chettimedu Pathur could be from Iron Age,” he added[12].

About the skeletal remains: The skeletal remains found have become sensational and the media gave much publicity about it. Koshi said the child, whose remains have been found, could be between 9 years and 11 years of age as the mandibular deciduous first molar tooth hasn’t started to shed. The skeleton is in a north-south direction, with the head placed north and rest of the body oriented to south, the face turned towards west. “This practice has been followed since the protohistoric era and the pot near the skeleton is typical neolithic era pottery.” Researchers plan to date the site and extract DNA samples from skeleton or material in the pot.  

The study of skeletal remains important, before coming up with hypotheses and theories: The study of the human skeleton (osteology[13]) involves many scientific methods. It is said that paleaodemocratic method is there to date and analyze the skeletal remains[14]. Archaeologists have long used carbon-14 dating (also known as radiocarbon dating) to estimate the age of certain objects. Traditional radiocarbon dating is applied to organic remains between 500 and 50,000 years old and exploits the fact that trace amounts of radioactive carbon are found in the natural environment. Bones are one of the most common materials sent to accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) labs for radiocarbon dating. This is because the bones of animals or humans are often subjects of archaeological studies. A lot about the prehistoric era has been learned due to archaeological studies and radiocarbon dating of bones[15]. More in-depth information about old civilizations is also available due to radiocarbon dating results on bones. DNA method is also followed, but each method has limitations[16].

A reporter sitting by the side of the skeleton and explaining its age, date and all……..

Head and teeth of the skeleton.

teeth visible, closer view……

Lower jaw portion…..

while the study is not complete, the media has come out with sensational reports that the skeleton belongs to 5000 YBP period and so on! The You-tubers have been so exhilarating that they started circulating videos according to their own imagination. One such video claims that this excavation excels Keeladi and so on!

To what extent, the comparative dating can be applied and accepted?: Nowadays, archaeologists are trying to date the excavated by the comparative dating method. If the stratigraphical layers are not disturbed, then, artefacts that are found in successive undisturbed cultural layers can be dated relatively based on the principles of stratigraphy. The principle of cultural/archaeological stratification is fundamental and it plays a dominant role in archaeological investigations. The technique is borrowed from geology and applied in archaeology[17]. Sir Charles Lyell shaped the concept of stratigraphy in geology and published it in his outstanding book Principles of Geology by Sir Charles Lyell in 1830. There are certain basic laws and notions that are followed in identifying and studying stratigraphy. They are Laws of Superposition, Laws of Original Horizontality, Laws of Original Continuity and Laws of Faunal Succession. This concept was introduced in archaeology by the scholars like C.J.Thomsen, J.J.Worsaae, Kathleen M. Kenyon and Mortimer Wheeler.

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

19-03-2024.

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The reporter at the site explaining the excavated brick!

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[1] A buzzword is a word or phrase, new or already existing, that becomes popular for a period of time. Buzzwords often derive from technical terms yet often have much of the original technical meaning removed through fashionable use, being simply used to impress others.

[2] GOI order for excavation, Digital Mapping of Ancient Sites, dated 05-02-2024

https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/1715/AU456.pdf?source=pqals

[3] DtNext, In a first, Neolithic child burial site found in TN, DTNEXT Bureau|28 Feb 2024 7:00 AM  ( Updated:28 Feb 2024 7:01 AM.

[4] https://www.dtnext.in/news/tamilnadu/in-a-first-neolithic-child-burial-site-found-in-tn-770670

[5] Times of India, Madras univ researchers unearth neolithic site near Chengalpet, Ragu Raman / TNN / Updated: Feb 28, 2024, 09:37 IST,

[6] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/madras-univ-researchers-unearth-neolithic-site-near-chengalpet/articleshow/108059076.cms

[7] Indian Express, Tamil Nadu: Child burial site dating back to neolithic age unearthed in Chengalpattu, Updated on: 28 Feb 2024, 7:29 am

[8] https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2024/Feb/28/tamil-nadu-child-burial-site-dating-back-to-neolithic-age-unearthed-in-chengalpattu

[9] The Daily Guardiam, Neolithic child burial site discovered in TN, By: Latha Srinivasan, Updated on: February 29, 2024, 4:55 am IST.

[10] https://thedailyguardian.com/neolithic-child-burial-site-discovered-in-tn/

[11] BNN Breaking, Revolutionary Neolithic Child Burial Site Unearthed in Tamil Nadu: A First in State History, Hadeel Hashem, 27 Feb 2024 20:46 EST.

[12] https://bnnbreaking.com/world/asia/revolutionary-neolithic-child-burial-site-unearthed-in-tamil-nadu-a-first-in-state-history

[13] A subdiscipline of anatomy, anthropology, and paleontology, osteology is the detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, microbone morphology, function, disease, pathology, the process of ossification (from cartilaginous molds), and the resistance and hardness of bones (biophysics). Osteologists frequently work in the public and private sector as consultants for museums, scientists for research laboratories, scientists for medical investigations and/or for companies producing osteological reproductions in an academic context.

[14] Boldsen, Jesper L., George R. Milner, and Stephen D. Ousley. “Paleodemography: From archaeology and skeletal age estimation to life in the past.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 178 (2022): pp.115-150.

[15] Radio carbon Dating bones, https://www.radiocarbon.com/ams-dating-bones.htm

[16] Mays, Simon. The archaeology of human bones. Routledge, 2021. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315171821

[17] K. Rajan, Relative dating methods, e-Patashala, https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000829IC/P001688/M020081/ET/1493287698P07-M17-RelativeDatingMethods-ET.pdf

Note here, the reporter mentions that “it is believed to be from 5000 B.C….. “, that is 7000 YBP!

Culture at cross-roads? – the International conference held at the University of Madras on March 14th and 15th 2024 (1)

Culture at cross-roads? – the International conference held at the University of Madras on March 14^th and 15^th 2024 (1)

Banner kept at the entrace of the F-50 Hall of the University of Madras

 The International Conference on “Culture at cross-roads?”: The International Conference on “Culture at cross-roads?” was held on March 14th and 15th 2024 at the University of Madras, F-50 hall jointly organized by the Anthropology department and Vanama Arts Trust, T. Nagar. Dr M. P. Damodaran and Dr Prabhu Kumari Vamana convened the conference accordingly. Last year, 2023, the Two Day International Academic (Blended Mode Summit on “Culture, Heritage and Nation Building” was held at the University of Madras on February 1st and 2nd 2023 at the Hall of Management Studies, University of Madras[1]. I have posted the proceedings in detail and they can be accessed and read from here[2]. It is happy to note that they have been active and organizing conferences every year, encouraging young students, researchers and others. As they have been delving into culture mainly, they gave a concept note on the topic and it is as follows.

The anthropology department hosted the conference….

“Culture at crossroads?” – concept note: Culture is regarded as the spectacle of human life, the prettiness of humanity! Culture made us unique beings of the world. It is a complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any capabilities. It is acquired and transmitted from generation to generation over time and space. Culture is our expression, verbal, non-verbal, and visual composition of human history and ways of life itself. The charm of culture and heritage shines in and on art, architecture, dance, music, folklore, integrity of the people and what not. The food, textiles, antique costumes, jewellery exhibits a phenomenal difference of assimilation, acculturation and diffusion due to enormous influence of modernity and globalization. Culture on CrossRoads is a multidimensional process that has created and is continuously creating unique traditions in transformation multifariously.

The culture at crossroads, how understood….

Views in a national and international perspective: The physical crossroads from time immemorial are reifying the human imagination to such an extent that subjects ranging from arts to science or sports to archery did ever remained as an exception. While migration processes conditioned by historical and anthropological events created a unique culture that is now on crossroads. Each twist and turn in the development of mankind has not only created a uni-fold unique environment in any and every sphere of escarpment, influencing the lifeways absolutely or else. This international conference is a channel to express where the indigenous ideas when mixed with heterogeneous ideologies of any or the same country, developed and is also incessantly creating an amalgamating, unifying, revivifying novel unique cultures, of course at times or vice versa! Hence, the Conference will offer a worthwhile exercise of exchange of knowledge and sharing of views in a national and international perspective through a multi-disciplinary as well as interdisciplinary viewpoint.

Bharatiya Samskruti – the Culture of Bharat – has been mentioned in a Telugu daily!

Cross-roads – what it connotes?: By and large, all dictionaries Oxford, Cambridge, Collins, Brittanica, Merriam-Webster etc., give the following connotation:

• As many roads meet at a point, the traveller is bewildered as to proceed further in a particular direction;
• a crucial point especially where a decision must be made
• a crisis situation or point in time when a critical decision must be made
• one has reached an important but uncertain stage to take a decision
• one has reached a very important stage in its development where it could go one way or another.

Thus, the Western connotation has been searching for, reaching at crossroads and thus find a resolution. However, in India, the travellers, drivers and caravans are happy to each chowk (चौक), kutroad (கூட்ரோட்) or crossroad, as they could meet fellow-travellers, eat food, take rest, spend time with others or even do business. Thus, the contrast can be found and appreciated.

Prof B. V. Sharma, Director, and Anthropological Survey of India: Generally the paper speakers and presenters first discussed about “culture at cross-roads?” according to their own understanding and then proceeded to their topic. Prof B. V. Sharma, Director, and Anthropological Survey of India also proceeded in the same way to deliver his inaugural address. He first discussed about “culture at cross-roads?”, taking in as a metaphor, pointing to a situation, where, decision-making process becomes difficult. That men are different from the animals, he explained how cultures change with time. The globalization also affects culture and creates “digital divide” among the people of the world. In the context of India, it is well-known that how unity and diversity held continue to preserve its culture. Each ethnic group has a cultural marker and transmission of culture takes place from generation to generation.  There have been certain practices that are still followed even today, as followed some 2500 years ago. This has been the uniqueness of India.

The HOD, the Dance-historian, the Registrar, the host……

Dr S. Elumalai, the Registrar of the University -presidential address: Dr S. Elumalai, the Registrar of the University delivered his presidential address differentiated between the clash of civilizations and clash of cultures. Agriculture, sericulture, aquaculture, horticulture, etc., he tried to interpret that culture shows the diversity, differences and variance. Yet, there have been common factors in Indian culture. The “Clash of Civilizations” is a thesis that people’s cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world. The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures. It was proposed in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled “The Clash of Civilizations?”, in response to his former student Francis Fukuyama’s 1992 book The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. After “the Clash of civilizations,” though, “the clash of cultures” is also talked about[3], there have been differences of opinion. Under the context of globalization also, it is discussed.

Dr Swarnamalaya…..

the audience

Dr Swarnamalya, Dancer & Cultural Historian – special address: Dr Swarnamalya, Dancer & Cultural Historian delivered a special address. She used Tamil words to denote culture and it appears superficial. Though she tried to interpret “Panpadu,” (பண்பாடு) with different nuances, but, she had forgotten “Kalacharam” (கலாச்சாரம்). However, in India, cultural strands have been interwoven and connected to each other. She recollected her association with the university also, as she got PhD from here, and she was rehearsing practice for the inaugural function of Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam, for President of India etc.

the audience

Dr T. Chandralekha, former Dean, Dr MGR Educational Institute & University: Dr T. Chandralekha, former Dean, Dr MGR Educational Institute & University gave a special address online. In general, she talked about culture and other aspects. As it was online mode, it was not clear, what she was speaking about and the audience was at a crossroads. The students at the back were also talking to each other. Therefore, this type of “online” discourse can be avoided.  

the audience

On-line / hybrid mode and its effectiveness: Nowadays, the on-line mode is used, but, it has been monotonous and there is no connect between the speaker and the audience. The speaker goes on speaking or reading from the paper or from the screen of the computer and there would not be any “lively” interaction. Many times, the audience starts talking with each other, without listening to the speech of the invited guest.  because of the artificiality. Even, if a person presents a paper or talks at regular conference, the whole audience may not be interested in listening to. Also, some time is wasted from the beginning to end due to technical and other problems. During the Corona period, it was used and now sometimes continues with inherent limitations.

the audience

List of papers not given: As the list of papers was not given, it was very difficult to know who was the paper presenter and what was his paper. Each paper presenter, just came and presented the paper. There was much generalization without any specifics, where the audience could not get attracted. Too much repetitiveness, vague narrative and verbose also do not attract the audience.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

17-03-2024

the audience

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[1] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Two Day International Academic (Blended Mode[1]) Summit on Culture, Heritage and Nation Building was held at the University of Madras on February 1st and 2nd 2023 at the hall of Management Studies (1), February 9, 2023.

The Conference on Culture, Heritage and Nation Building held at the University of Madras on February 1st and 2nd 2023 (1)

[2] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Two Day International Academic (Blended Mode[1]) Summit on Culture, Heritage and Nation Building was held at the University of Madras on February 1st and 2nd 2023 at the hall of Management Studies (2), February 9, 2023.

The Conference on Culture, Heritage and Nation Building held at the University of Madras on February 1st and 2nd 2023 (2)

[3] Fagan, Brian M. Clash of cultures. Rowman Altamira, 1998.

Artificial Intelligence – can it be useful for archaeology, anthropology, history and related subjects?

Artificial Intelligence – can it be useful for archaeology, anthropology, history and related subjects?

What is artificial intelligence?: Simply, it is the “intelligence,” that is “artificial,” virtual and imaginary and thus, not real. When, “intelligence,” brainpower and acumen become artificial, man loses his mental power. Then, who is acquiring that “intelligence other than man? Machine, man-created machine only replaces. However, again, man only controls the computer giving inputs to create such AI. However, the man knows how even another man is controlled through “brain control, brainwashing” etc., either by inducement or threat. A master-slave example is applied for many exigencies with positive and negative connotations and applications. Accordingly, the application of AI is subjected to limitations.

Doing a job, again and again, mechanical and robotics: A robot is considered as human substitute that could do some specific work, as per the computer software program. In industries, wherever, repetitive processes were there, they were controlled to be carried on again and again by man-operated machine, switch, timer and later with computer. Gears and continuously rotating parts are replaced with software programs, where, many processes are repeated. Thus, profile cutting machines have already been used in electrical, electronic and mechanical industries. Slowly, more processes were brought under the computerized control. In the design and development processes of many industries, they are frequently used. In Textiles, garments and related industries, they become essential, as they do such jobs easily with software manipulation. For FMG, its role becomes far and wide. Now, the film, media and ad-companies exploit the maximum.

AI could bring more profits to Internet-dependent companies: Artificial intelligence leverages computers and machines to mimic the problem-solving and decision-making capabilities of the human mind[1]. However, it is not simply man-created robots imitating man, but, more than that in many cases.

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or other animals. It is a field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines.
• AI technology is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative and creative tools (ChatGPT and AI art), and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (such as chess and Go).
• The companies involved in the Internet business directly or indirectly, are very much interested in this field, as the more time man spends on it, the more usage and the more income and profits to them (manufacturers and service providers).

What will happen to the buyers, users and consumers?: With the internet, many of students (from pre-KG to PhD) stopped reading books and just “google” and get prepared for exams. For project work etc., they just copy Wiki[2]. With the rise of mobiles, they virtually become slaves and affecting the human relations. More Internet usage, more men turning to cyber, cyber crimes have also started increasing. Of course, money has been the target, for that all ethics and morals are sacrificed. Thus, unimaginable crimes are committed affecting humanity. It is not that one community, nation, country or continent, but, the whole world gets affected.

India required “demythologization” and not more mythologization through AI: What is important in Indian/Bharat history today is not further mythologization, but the retrieval or recovery of science and technology from such myths. Such a method is called demythologization. At Somnathapuram, the linga was floating, and it was a scientific technique. Here, historically, there is no myth or falsehood. Though, even historians like Romila Thapar have mentioned it, they could not explain the scientific aspect, as they do not know it. Magnetic levitation refers to the floating of an object without the aid of any other object, but only by the magnetic force of like poles repelling each other. It is noteworthy that this technology has now extended to trains as well. German trains called Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) fly like this. A magnetic levitation or floating train is a train that can float without the help of wheels through magnetic levitation technology. When it starts crawling, not all of its parts hit the ground. The speed of these trains going on the magnetic track can exceed 580 kilometres per hour. In the same way, the science and technology behind the Indian material culture can be explained.

The demythologization of Indian history is more important than AI-sponsored pictures: In ancient India, the process of rewriting the epics was started by various vested groups, before the various impacts caused by foreign invasions in Bharat. Jains-Buddhists in particular had rewritten them with many interpolations to show off their antiquity. In other words, they added a narrative of Tirtankaras and Buddhas made available in every yuga[3]. This is why there are so many slokas in Ramayana and Mahabharata increasing from one recension to another. Again the slokas were added when those who learned and realized the legends and tried to remove them, i.e. to change the matters which had already come into prevalent, known and recorded in the manuscripts. First, they tried to give a proper explanation so that such contradictions were understood and ignored. Rewriting, expurgation and editing processes were involved in such correcting processes. Such interchanges ranged from the Jain period to the medieval Muslim and 19^th century colonial periods.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence cannot create new myths by putting on a scientific mask and technical masquerade in methods like pseudo-science, and alchemy. Already now scientific researches like DNA and genetics have been diverted by ideological delusions[4], hybrids with their likes and dislikes. In graphics, models, pictures, films etc. have already been realistically captured and available in circulation. Although somewhat reflective of the real situation, more fictional characters were created. But artificial intelligence is turning real historical heroes into fictional characters. Gods, who are already worshipped as idols, as deities in sanctum sanctorum, are transformed by artificial intelligence into some sort of living human beings. Thus, even the remnants of reality that exist today will eventually disappear or be denied by the ignorant one day.

Commercialization of Science and Technology: Now many people are working to commercialize using the current technologies as how to make money in a short period of time by increasing internet usage. That is, especially in a country like India where there are 140 crore people, even if one crore or just one lakh people become buyers for a product, the manufacturer or seller will get considerable income and profit. So, keeping it in mind, they use their new and novel aggressive campaign tactics. For that, they need advertisement and publicity vigorously. They don’t even bother about quality, standards, efficiency, etc. in such unethical and unspiritual business. Therefore, even when education, textbooks, teachers who teach them; schools and universities come, the idea that anyone should read and study the sources becomes less important in terms of need, status and benefits. That’s why there are so many people who just study and get marks in some subject and qualified, go to work, earn and live comfortably. So in that case, no one seems to care if he says, “Go and read the sources and write with evidence.”

Caution about AI: There is concern about the increase in malpractice in the field of scientific research[5]. As shown by various institutions and studies, institutional, economic and cultural factors have encouraged an increase in cases of professional malpractice including fraud, corruption, plagiarism, conflicts of interest, financial doping, improper attribution, illicit appropriation of ideas, concepts and results, influence peddling, falsification of evidence, data manipulation, exaggeration of results, lack of protection of research subjects, misappropriation or misuse of resources, the commodification of knowledge, use of phantom sources, nepotistic or inbred citation, improper or fraudulent use of information. The researchers have also pointed out that, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a double-edged sword for scientific research. While, on one hand, the incredible potential of AI and the different techniques and technologies for using it make it a product coveted by all scientific research centres and organisations and science funding agencies. On the other, the highly negative impacts that its irresponsible and self-interested use is causing, or could cause, make it a controversial tool, attracting strong criticism from those involved in the different sectors of research…”

Limitations of usage to archaeology, anthropology and related subjects: About the usage of AI for archaeology, anthropology and allied subjects has been discussed and debated, because of the advantages and disadvantages involved[6]. The easy availability of Machine Language (ML) algorithms and lack of expertise on their proper use among the anthropological research community has led to foundational misapplications that have appeared throughout the literature. The resulting unreliable results not only undermine efforts to legitimately incorporate ML into anthropological research, but produce potentially faulty understandings about our human evolutionary and behavioural past[7].

1. Why don’t the AI experts try to analyze and decipher the Indus Valley pictograms, signs or fonts with their artificial intelligence?

2. There are many chronological puzzles in Indian history, why not solve them with their machine language and artificial intelligence?

3. Those who earn money by singing Ramayana and enjoying discourses, can solve the problem of such chronological issues faithfully?

4. Those who are disputing and fighting about Advaita-Dvaitam etc., can bring them under timelines acceptable to commonman?

5. By the application of AI for religious depiction, in an attempt to humanize the gods, they turn them into dehumanized cute cartoon characters only.

6. Therefore, they have to act as a tool to break counter-ideologies and not to be in a position to feed them.

7. What is important in Indian history today is not the mythologization of the existing, but, demythologization, scientifically.

8. But the science and technology contained in the Vedangas, Itihasas, Puranas etc.,  is to be restored and given to the people in an understandable way.

9. There is no need to create new historical problems without solving existing historical and archaeological issues and contradictions.

10. Artificial Intelligence should not become some sort of pseudo-science, alchemy, etc.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

17-01-2024

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[1] https://www.ibm.com/topics/artificial-intelligence

[2]  In fact, I have also referred to Wiki to understand the fundamentals, later to proceed to read other research papers in the context.

[3] Even in Ramayana period, Hains and Buddhists were found. The dates of Titankaras are traced back to Kaliyuga. In Buddhism, buddhas were there in every aeon.

[4]  In spite of “Out of Africa,” theory, Neanderthal exists and the so-called “Aryan-Dravidian” hypotheses and theories continue in India.

[5] González Esteban, Elsa, and Patrici Calvo. “Ethically governing artificial intelligence in the field of scientific research and innovation.” Heliyon 8 (2022) e08946, 2022.

[6] Tenzer, Martina, et al. “Debating AI in archaeology: applications, implications, and ethical considerations.”, 2023.

[7] Calder, Jeff, et al. “Use and misuse of machine learning in anthropology.” IEEE BITS the Information Theory Magazine 2.1 (2022): 102-115.

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Utility of the subjects and their immediate usage to humanity: Just like tourism, tourism management etc., “History of science and technology”  has been discovered, created and covered under the syllabus and offered as an “elective” subject to the postgraduate students of various disciplines. “History syllabus” has also been formulated to be taught to the students of professional courses like science and technologies, medicine, commerce, management etc., thus, much hype is created with the syllabus to reach and teach history to others.

• No teacher of those subjects proposed such a scheme that they would go and teach “science and technology” to them. 
• So why such exigency arises and for what purpose etc., have also to be analyzed.
• By going through the syllabus, it is clear that the students of professional courses do not gain much by reading such subjects.
• In every subject, mathematics, physics, chemistry, economics, commerce, accounting etc., the origin, progress and development and also the present and future status and scope of them have already been included in the syllabus and taught.
• If fact, their subjects have been and are updated and therefore, such subjects lead to innovative inventions that are immediately converted into parts, accessories, spares, gadgets, appliances, tools and so on useful to humanity.

History of Science and Technology: To write, read, teach and learn “History of Science and Technology”, one need not learn the core subject history, but, the history students cannot understand the “History of Science and Technology,” unless, they are taught from the fundamentals.

• Definitely, all non-history subjects are taught with its origin, which is nothing but history of that subject or perhaps more than that.
• That is how mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology at one side, and commerce, accounts, management, factory physics, industrial chemistry, bionics, mnemonics[1] etc., on the other side are taught in the schools and universities.
•  Though more and more science and technological subjects increase, there is demand for admission.
• However, recently, the subject “History of Science and Technology” is included for the students of history, archaeology, anthropology, numismatics and related subjects with their own formulated syllabus.
• But, they are taught only as history and not as the “History of Science and Technology.”

BCE 5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,5 CE or BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE which is correct?: The scientific study of the origin of the subject “History of Science and Technology”, has been different from the simple subject of “History of Science and Technology, for science students. In fact, under such expected conditions, the history teachers cannot teach the “History of Science and Technology”, to them.

• The concept of “zero” and infinity, decimal number system, calendar, planetary system, etc., have been perplexing even for science students, and therefore, how the history students read and understand them, is not known.
• In fact, for chronology, studying eras, dating and other exercises, history teachers have to understand these concepts. 
• Yet, no history expert is worried about “0” year in between BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE years, while computing.
• Why the Roman numerals – I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X did not have “0” is also not known to them!
• Why the Fibonacci series does not start with “0,” (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc.,) they cannot explain.

These are given only for illustrative purposes and are not exhaustive. Therefore, without knowing “o,” how history teachers would teach about, chronology and related historical developments.

Historical time is linear or cyclic, if “history repeats”!: In science and technology, anything linear or cyclic is understood easily and applied practically, but, in history, nowadays, some historians claim that history is linear and not cyclic. However, having claimed, they have not been able to define exactly how the history has been linear, when “history repeats itself”[2]. Just because, historian has decided take the expression “linear,” he cannot make history “linear.”[3] Again such expertise and elite historians do not bother about the axes and the origin, the zero point. Not only X and Y axes, even Z axis has the other side also.  How then, historians visualize the –ve axes and interpret historical events. Of course, they are totally not bothered as to whether it is 2D or 3D, yet, they prefer to use such terminology in history and historiography.

Using scientific terminology is different from actually working scientifically: Just by using certain terms and expressions, scientific, scientific temper, linear, dynamic, static, etc., at one side and heuristic[4], holistic, euphemistic, epistemological, on the other side, history cannot become scientific or technological, as none of the historical hypotheses, theories and concepts can be tested in the laboratory.

• Earlier, historians used to claim with pride that they should have object in mind, objective mentality and objectivity in dealing with historical facts.
• Now, they assert that they need not have such standards (objectivity).
• Ten historians can write history about the same “object,” and all the ten histories become histories of the object!
• But, science says one is one only; 1+1=2 only, all have accepted universally for thousands of years and it continues.
• Historians and history teachers cannot say in history about anything within a year, 10 years, 100 years… in the same way again and again.
• In India itself,
  • grandfather / grandmother read one history,
  • father / mother read another history,
  • son / daughter read yet another history and
  • now grandson / granddaughter reads still-yet another history!
• This type of history is found in the case of the –
  • Grandfather – Chandragupta Maurya c.324/31 – 297 BCE
  • Father – Bindusara – c.297-273 BCE
  • Grandson – Asoka – c.268-232 BCE

Thus, within three generations, grandfather and father were prehistoric, illiterate and unhistorical also, wheras, the grandson was historic and literate! Again, the grandfather was a Jain, the father Hindu and the grandson a Buddhist! A perfect secular model family!

• In India, there had / have been millions of practices, procedures, and standards followed in day to day life for more than 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 YBP and more. They had / have  and are historical only, unlike their “histories” produced or manufactured by the European Company writers and the 1947-Indian history writers.
• Once a history writer becomes ideological, then, no two historians accept and history in India, it always becomes some sort of TV-debate where four persons come and talk about the same subject in four different ways! They come together only to differ from each other and not to come to any conclusion.

Blind Men and an Elephant: The history writers of the European Companies always mention this “cock and bull story”[5] to denigrate Indians for their acumen[6].  Not only non-Indians have read the sources properly, understood the concept and interpret such stories, but also the listeners, readers and others to verify the authenticity of the stories floated about themselves. The irony has been, this “cock and bull ……….story” has been and is still included in the syllabus and the naïve and gullible teachers go on teach and our students read and appreciate the “idiocy” – stupidity, absurdity and silliness of Indians, and believe that they (the Europeans) only taught Indians how to count, learn and dress properly. More and more “Mayos”[7] have been created to spread such “maya,” and when they would be liberated and brought to light from such darkness[8] is not known.

Any subject is offered as an elective, choice or forced: Again teaching history to other disciplines commerce, economics, management, medicine etc., is different from the teaching of “History of Science and Technology” to history students themselves. Just because, history subject is losing its scope in the academics, the history teachers cannot introduce some syllabus and try to impose the same old stuff on the non-history students.

• The utility, benefit and value of the subject also come into play, when any student selects any subject voluntarily, as an elective or for some other reason.
• The students of the “History of Science and Technology” are interested in progress, development and growth in their studies, research and further pursuits.
• Therefore, they may not be interested in what the dynasties fought with each other, rulers invaded other territories or autocrats made the people suffer.
• Even the social, communal, religious, societal, and other aspects and related issues are also irrelevant to them, as long as they divide people based on any factor.

The utility value of the subject: Ultimately, when job, assignment and employment are decided on the certificates and diplomas received, yet, the application of the learned subject in the field decides the fate of the employee, worker or staff.

• A fitter, electrician, plumber and any other technician after getting certificates, has been ready to work in the field, as he has to carry out his job, as otherwise, he will be sent out immediately on the first day, when he is found that he is not able tp work in his field, in spite of having diploma / certificates in his trade or many certificates including other disciplines. “A jack of all trades but master of none”.
• So also a professionally qualified engineer or doctor or any other expert.
• “If you know the job, come and join immediately,” that type of policy is followed today, walk-in interview, selection and appointment order.
• All the certificates and diplomas come thereafter, just for verification.
• If you have 10 certificates, diplomas and degrees in one discipline or 10 different disciplines, but, you cannot work properly, you will be fired, because, the employers want the work to go on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-08-2023

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[1] Mnemonics is the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory, A mnemonic device (or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding.

[2] Historic recurrence is the repetition of similar events in history. The concept of historic recurrence has variously been applied to overall human history (e.g., to the rises and falls of empires), to repetitive patterns in the history of a given polity, and to any two specific events which bear a striking similarity. Hypothetically, in the extreme, the concept of historic recurrence assumes the form of the Doctrine of Eternal Recurrence, which has been written about in various forms since antiquity and was described in the 19^th century by Heinrich Heine and Friedrich Nietzsche. While it is often remarked that “history repeats itself”, in cycles of less than cosmological duration this cannot be strictly true. In this interpretation of recurrence, as opposed perhaps to the Nietzschean interpretation, there is no metaphysics. Recurrences take place due to ascertainable circumstances and chains of causality.

[3]  In the case of electricity, electronics, computers, digital technology etc., the electric pulse is sinusoidal, digitized to square-shaped pulses and so on. All such processes cannot be brought under any “linear” explanation or interpretation of history.

[4] A heuristic is a mental shortcut commonly used to simplify problems and avoid cognitive overload. Heuristics are part of how the human brain evolved and is wired, allowing individuals to quickly reach reasonable conclusions or solutions to complex problems.

[5] Cock and bull story, far-fetched and fanciful story or tale of highly dubious validity produced by the British county hoteliers / inns to attract their customers.

[6] The Buddhist text Tittha Sutta, Udāna 6.4, Khuddaka Nikaya, contains one of the earliest versions of the story. The Tittha Sutta is dated to around c. 500 BCE, during the lifetime of the Buddha. An alternative version of the parable describes sighted men, experiencing a large statue on a dark night, or feeling a large object while being blindfolded. They then describe what it is they have experienced. In its various versions, it is a parable that has crossed between many religious traditions and is part of Jain, Hindu and Buddhist texts of 1st millennium CE or before. The story also appears in 2^nd millennium Sufi and Baháʼí Faith lore. The tale later became well known in Europe, with 19^th century American poet John Godfrey Saxe creating his own version as a poem, with a final verse that explains that the elephant is a metaphor for God, and the various blind men represent religions that disagree on something no one has fully experienced. The story has been published in many books for adults and children, and interpreted in a variety of ways.

[7] Katherine Mayo, an American lady  and also reportedly a historian wrote a book Mother India (1927) became  a polemical book as it contained many narratives of  grudge, hate and vengeance against Indian – society, religion and culture. Indians do not know any such book has been written about American or European society, religion and culture.

[8] Mohammedan or Mughal court historians always dub that the kafirs (non-believers, non-Mohammedans) of Hindustan were in the jahallia (in the darkness) and they were trying to show nur (light) through jihad (holy war) with their revealed book (al-kitabiya), as the kafirs do not are any revealed scriptures / book..

The Bower Manuscript – Navanitika, the Ancient Medical Book of Bharat discovered in 19th century in Central Asia!

The Bower Manuscript – Navanitika, the Ancient Medical Book of Bharat discovered in 19^th century in Central Asia!

Bower to Waterhouse to Rudolf Hoernle: Next to the Bakhshali manuscript, the Bower manuscript attracts Indian researchers of Science and Technology in India. Actually, it is “Navanitika,” an ancient medical book, recovered partially. However, it is named after Hamilton Bower – a British Lieutenant, who bought the manuscript in March, 1890 while on a mission to chase an assassin charged with hacking a Scotsman to death. Just like “Periyar planetarium,” [who has nothing to do anything with astronomy], the Medical manuscript of the book has been named after the purchaser of the book, instead of the author. The story of the purchase goes in this way – On the night of 2^nd or 3^rd March 1890, a man came to his tent and offered to sell him old manuscripts and artefacts that his treasure hunters had found. Bower bought them. This proves that the European explorers, army officers, members of the Society of Jesus and others had been in the vigorous searchers and purchasers of Indian manuscripts[1]. James Waterhouse, the then President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Waterhouse mentioned that the Bower manuscript had 56 leaves (the edition now preserved at Bodleian Library has 51 leaves). That is five pages / leaves were missing from the recovered collection. He reported that the Bower manuscript was bound with two wooden boards on either end and a string running through a hole. The fragmentary manuscript was analyzed, edited, translated and published by Rudolf Hoernle in 1897 in instalments,[2] but, not completed.

The Manuscript book was meddled with: Immediately after his return to India in February 1891, Hoernle began to study the manuscript. He found that the manuscript leaves were jumbled out of sequence, but had the page numbers marked on the left. They were obviously written in three or four styles[3], thus by three / four persons or three / four different periods. After re-arranging them, he concluded that it was an abridged collection of several different treatises[4]. “On examining more closely the several leaves, I noticed that they were evidently mixed up. The leaves written in the different hands followed one another without any order. But I also noticed that many of the leaves were marked with numbers on their left hand margin…..It further seemed that the three varieties of writing distinguished three different works…………The work is a compendium of medicine, is named the Navanitika, and consists of sixteen chapters (adhydya). That it was written by a Buddhist, is seen from the initiatory salutation of the “Tathagatas” or Buddhas……based on the excellent system of the Maharishis as composed by them in olden times……..Now as to the age of the MS., I believe it to be very old and written not later than the end of the 5th century A. D. The style of writing is exactly like that which we meet with in the early Gupta inscriptions[5], between 450 and 550 A. D..,” He presented the first decipherment two months later, at the meeting of the Society in April 1891, with evidence that it was “the oldest Indian written book that is known to exist”.The Bower Manuscript, sometimes referred to as the Yashomitra Manuscript, is preserved in the collections of the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

The facts that could be derived from the analysis of the Bower Manuscript: The following facts could be listed as the facts derived from the analysis of the manuscript:

1. The Indian medical system and books travelled with the Buddhist monks going to Central Asia, China etc.
2. Sanskrit was the language used, but it was written in different scripts. Here, it was written in the Gupta Brajmi, as the British noted.
3. The writers, composers and practitioners of medicinal works acknowledged the source to “….the excellent system of the Maharishis as composed by them in olden times……”
4. In other words, the Buddhists acknowledged that they derived such knowledge from the earlier Rishis, the Hindus.
5. Thus, there had been an established medical system in the ancient India.
6. The collectors, sellers and buyers of the manuscripts used to mix-up the manuscripts without knowing the contents and significance.
7. During the 19^th-20^th centuries, the dating of the manuscripts was done relatively. Comparing the style of the script with that of the style of scripts used in the rock inscriptions.
8. As the rock inscriptions have been dated after the invasion of Alexander’s invasion and Asoka was reportedly copied the “Brahmi script” from the Greeks, they were dated to c. 3d cent.BCE.
9. Thus, the historical period of India started with c.326 BCE and all other incidences were placed in the pre-historic period.

What the Bower Manuscript or “Navanitika” deals with?: The writers salute the Tathagatas with the claim that they are going to write an approved compendium of medicine called the Navanitaka, based on the excellent system of the Maharishis as composed by them in olden times. Useful medicinal details are given for the cure of diseases of women and children. The work is commended to those physicians whose minds delight in conciseness, but on account of the multiplicity of its prescriptions.

1. The first chapter will give prescriptions of powders ;
2. the second of clarified butter;
3. the third will be concerned with oils.
4. The fourth will be about the mixtures which are used in the treatment of various diseases.
5. The fifth will give prescriptions of clysters,
6. the sixth rules about elixirs.
7. The seventh will be about gruels,
8. the eighth about aphrodisiacs,
9. the ninth about eyewashes,
10. the tenth about hair-dyes.
11. The eleventh will be concerned with applications of the yellow myrobalan.
12. The twelfth will be about bitumen,
13. the thirteenth about castor-oil.
14. The fourteenth will be concerned with the treatment of children;
15. the fifteenth will deal with the treatment of barren women.
16. Lastly the sixteenth will be about the treatment of women who have children.

 These sixteen chapters will constitute the Navanitaka.

Rudolf Hoernle on Indian Oesteology[6]: After the Bakhshali and Bower manuscripts, what made Rudolf Hoernle to take interest in “Indian Oesteology” is not known. He compared the number of bones mentioned in the medical works of the Greeks and the Indians. theory of the Ancient Indians regarding the skeleton, or the bony frame of the human body, has been transmitted to us m three different systems These are the systems of Atreya, Susruta, and Vagbhata. Pointing out that Ktesias[7] [400 BCE] came to India[8], he placed Charaka and Sushruta in the 6^th cent.BCE period. He also discussed about the two versions of the origin of medicine – one from Indra to Bharadwaja to Atreya to others and two from Indra to Dhanvantri (also called as Divadoshs, Kasiraja) to others. Rudolf Hoernle who proposed date of 600 BCE to Susruta uses a calibrating data point of Satapatha Brahmana to 500 BCE. Here, he gives 1000 BCE  to Satapatha Brahmana. Thus, he would have come across different manuscripts, birch-bark books on Indian medicine and hence his relative dates given to Indian works change. That the Indian civilization had/has been continuing for many thousands of years, whereas, the much talked, publicized and praised civilizations lie Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Roman, Greek and other civilizations had disappeared. Therefore, without proper healthcare etc., the Indians could not have lived to produce population. This implies the existence of doctors, hospitals etc., from the earlier period. The Mehrgarh evidences prove that dental surgery was practised at least 7500 YBP. The evidences of Trepanation also go back to c.4300 YBP or 2300 BCE[9]. The Chola inscription of the medieval period recorded about the existence of a full-fledged hospital with a surgeon. That so many battles and wars were fought also prove the existence of doctors, hospitals, surgeons and medicines. Therefore, putting all evidences together, the literary evidences could match with the historical and protohistorical evidences to link the prehistoric with historical period.

Rhinoplasty – From Susruta to Dinnanath Kangharia: Vaidya Bhagwan Dash in his introduction gives the following details[10]:

“Unfortunately, Lord Buddha himself succumbed to death after an operation by an Ayurvedic surgeon, and thereafter, surgery was considered as a form of violence against which his followers stood very firm and prohibited the various surgical measures by people, including surgeons of the country. The knowledge of surgery including anatomy gradually declined and looks on these subjects subsequently disappeared”.

Rhinoplasty was also practised in India, but, banned by the British government[11].

The rhinoplasty / (rhino = nose + plastiokos = shaping of) / shaping of the nose by plastic surgery practised in India up to 18^th century CE also proves the tradition of Sushruta. K. S. Goleria[12], S. C. Almast[13], Tribhovandas Shah[14], J. L. Gupta[15] and others[16] have pointed out such cases. The rhinoplasty has been practised by certain families e.g, Marattas of Kumar near Pune, Nepal, Kangharias of Kangra, and Himachal Pradesh. Dr. S. C. Almast reports that Sri. Dinanath Kangaria at Kangra and his family has been practising since 1440 CE. In fact, they claim that it was followed since the Mahabharat War, which took place around 3100 BCE. Taking the Trepanation evidences, as discussed below, it may not be brushed aside as boasted claim. Tribhovandas Motichand Shah was the then Chief Medical Officer at Junagadh in 1889 and he has recorded over a hundred cases of rhinoplasty conducted over four years describing the minute operative details and discussed the advantages of forehead rhinoplasty. Thus, it is evident that the tradition of rhinoplasty has been followed without a break.

Brahmi script exposed the forgeries and frauds of the British researchers: As the European researchers were searching for antiquities with the help of local people, they slowly understood the requirements of the Europeans. As they themselves were making profits by selling the antiquities, the guides in connivance with the locals started manufacturing copies of the antiquities, so that they could be sold to different explorers. It was in this competitive environment that Islam Akhun emerged. In 1895 he approached the British Consul in Kashgar, Sir George Macartney, with a number of manuscripts on paper. Ibrahim Mullah, Islam Akhun’s partner, was also selling similar items to the Russian consul Nikolai Petrovsky. He sent them to St. Petersburg to be translated. Ibrahim Mullah had some knowledge of Cyrillic scripts, and so he incorporated Cyrillic characters, which proved very confusing for those scholars tasked with their translation. Some were in a script similar to Brahmi and the documents were in several different formats, many bound with copper ties. Macartney purchased the documents and sent them to India in the hope that Augustus Rudolf Hoernlé, a prominent scholar of Indo-Aryan languages, would be able to decipher them. In April 1901 Stein tracked down Islam Akhun in Khotan and questioned him over the course of two days. Initially, Islam Akhun claimed innocence, insisting he had only been an agent for Macartney, and had himself purchased the documents from other parties, knowing how much the English desired them.  On his return to England, Stein met with Hoernle in his house in Oxford in July 1901 and informed the position[17].

Hoernle works destroyed or not – the background: Hoernle hoped that his own report could be destroyed but this was not possible as it had already been published. However, he was able to edit the second part before it went to print. Many of the forgeries remain in the collections of the British Library and the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, St. Petersburg. Interestingly, in the case of A.A. fuhrer, the same thing happened in bringing a casket that reportedly containing the ashes of Buddha, on which, Asokan Brahmi was inscribed[18]. Buhler deciphered the script in both cases. Vincent Smith intervened and decided. The publications of both Hoernle and Fuhrer were suspended or stopped or suppressed. Only par ts-II to VII are available. I have dealt with Fuhrer in detail in my paper[19]. The Asokan Brahmi has been placed to c.3^rd cent.BCE, but, Brahmi inscriptions are found on the monuments of Jain and Buddhist periods. Then, its dating should go to 7^th-6^th cent.BCE. When the dating of the perishable documents could go back to first centuries BCE-CE period, the scripts found on the inscriptions could not have been restricted to c.3^rd cent.BCE based on the Alexander invasion. Therefore, the dating of the Brahmi script has to be reassessed.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

29-04-2020

[1]  In another paper, I have shown how the Indian manuscripts were taken away by these groups to Europe and later to USA and supplying to Scientists, researchers, libraries and museums.

 K.V.Ramakrishna Rao, The Transmission of Medical Knowledge from Tamizhagam to Europe (15^th to 20^th centuries), sent for the seminar held at Los Angeles from November 17^th to 19^th 2006.

[2] A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, The Bower Manuscript, Parts III to VII, Archaeology of Survey of India, Calcutta, 1897.

[3]  The first point that strikes one on looking through the MS. is, that it appears to be written in three, if not four, different styles. This point has been already noticed in the November account.

Rudolf Hoernle, Birch Bark Manuscript, From the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, for April, 1891, p.1.

[4] Rudolf Hoernle, Birch Bark Manuscript, From the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, for April, 1891. Issued as a 20-page booklet.

[5] “The whole manuscript is written in what Mr. Fleet (in his Gupta Inscriptions in Volume III of the Corpus Inscription urn Indicorum, p. 3) distinguishes as the Northern class of the Nagari alphabet, which is characterized by the peculiar form of them. Of this class, however, three varieties are observable in the MS” – Rudolf Hoernle.

[6]  A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India – Oesteology or the Bones of Human Body, Part-I, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1907.

[7] Ktesias also known as Ctesias the Cnidian or Ctesias of Cnidus, was a Greek physician and historian from the town of Cnidus in Caria, when Caria was part of the Achaemenid Empire flourished during the 5th century BCE.

[8] A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India – Oesteology or the Bones of Human Body, preface, two Greek physicians, Ktesias, about 400 BCE , and Magasthenes about 300 BCE, visited, or resided in Northern India,

[9] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The position of Surgery Before and After Buddha, Swadeshi Science Movement, Bangalore, Sastratrayi,  pp.187-198.

[10] Vaidya Bhagwan Dash, in his introduction to the Hoernle’s book, pp.xix-xx.

1984. F. Rudolf Hoernle, Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India (Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body), Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1984.

[11] Nasal reconstructions had been practised as a relatively routine procedure in India for centuries. This was driven by the common use of nasal mutilation in India as a means of punishment or private vengeance for various forms of immorality. The procedures are described in two well-known early Indian medical works, the Suśruta Saṃhitā, thought to date to the middle of the first millennium BCE, and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā, believed to date from the sixth century CE.  By the nineteenth century the technique had been handed down through separate families in three different parts of India.

https://blogs.bl.uk/science/2016/10/britains-first-nose-job.html

[12] K. S. Goleria, Pedicie Flaps – A Historical Review, Indian Journal of Surgery, 1966, Vol.28, pp.247-254.

[13] S. C. Almast, History and Evolution of the Indian method of Rhinoplasty, Transactions of Fourth Internation Congress, Rome, Oct.1967, pp.19-25.

[14] Tribhuvandas, Rhinoplasty – A Short Description of One Hundred Cases, The Source Book of Plastic Surgery, 1977, pp.121-127.

[15] J. L. Gupta, Past, Present and Future of Plastic Surgery in India, Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery, 1991, Vol.24, pp.1-9.

[16] Keegan, Rhinoplastic Operations with Description of Recent Improvements in the Indian method, Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, London, 1900.

[17] What Stein wrote to Hoernle, “Islam Akhun is a very clever rascal, with a good deal of humour and brains quite above the level of his compatriots. His memory as to the articles he supplied was surprising. When he was once on the road to a full confession, it was easy to see how well his avowals agreed with the stories he had told M. and which your Report reproduces. I appreciate brains even in a scoundrel, and I wonder whether I. A. is not too dangerous a fellow to let loose on an innocent Khotan. … I do not know which documents you consider to be written in a kind of debased Nāgarī, and must reserve my opinion until you have shown them to me. But from what I have indicated above, you will realize why I fear that this reading will not prove more justified than my own supposition of Pahlavi characters in some of I. A.’s fabrications. Questions of this kind ought to be examined after a reliable knowledge of local facts has been secured, and I have spared no trouble to obtain this. You and others will be put by my report in full possession of these dates, and will then be able to judge for yourself whether it is worthwhile to continue the study of those documents in “unknown” characters”.

[18] JRASB, The Piprdhwd Stitpa, containing relics of Buddha. By WILLIAM CLAXTON PEPPE, Esq. Communicated, with a Note, by VINCENT A. SMITH, I.C.S., M.R.A.S. With two Plates. Pp.573-588

[19] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Salvaging, redeeming and Saving Archaeology and Managing Heritage in the Indian Context, A paper presented at the National Seminar, “Salvaging Archaeology and Heritage Management” held at Meenakshi College, Chennai on November 29th and 30th 2016.