Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Contemporary history writing towards balanced historiography (5)

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Contemporary history writing towards balanced historiography (5)

The contemporary history writing and historiography: The problems and dangers in writing contemporary history have been pointed out by the European and American writers. They have been mostly delving upon the World War I and II and the ideological power struggle involved. How the war crimes and related problems have been dealt with by NATO and WARSAW ideologists, the economic blockades and fiscal sanctions. Incidentally, a Communist writer pointed out the danger in writing the contemporary history[1]. Another view can be read here that of Ramachandra Guha[2] and also his yet another version here[3]. However, in the Indian context, the Indians have to face contemporary historiographical attacks both from outside and as well as inside. They have been still facing physical and ideological attacks from many such ideological groups. They have been eloquent in blaming others, but, less constructive in giving ways and means positively for the betterment of India. As Indian historians and historiography have already been ideologized and working in groups, their writings cannot be unified, but giving different versions, but, ultimately the dominant version prevails and the weak slowly die down.

Do historians cover all historical subjects with ideology?: Indians include thousands of groups of people engaged in a variety of job, work and avocations. During the last 3000-2000-1000-500-100 years, definitely much has affected them in many aspects, the Indian society formed and existing has been with certain specific culture, tradition, heritage and civilization. The A to Z of duties and responsibilities[4] can be studied under different categories (these are given only for illustrative purposes and not exhaustive):

• Science, technology
• Mathematician, astronomer, geology, cosmology, cosmogony,
• Law, acts, rules, judiciary, jurisprudence
• Education, schools, colleges, universities, specialization
• Health, medicine, diseases, hospitals
• Agriculture, seeds, cereals, oil,
• Ores, metals, metallurgy, utensils, bronzes
• Cotton, silk, yarn, weaving, textiles,
• Cattle, milk, milk products
• House, house construction, materials
• Temple, construction, sculptures, artisans, sculptors, stone worker,
• Artist, painter,
• Food, cooking, preservation of food
• Ruler, king, emperor, dynasty, chieftain, politics,
• Tax, cannons of taxation, exemption, exports, imports,
• Boat, ship, building, inland water transport, oversea navigation

Historians, history-writer, historiographer, archaeologist, or any other related experts do not cover all the subjects.  They may call themselves as Marxist, pro-Marxist, anti-Marxist, subalternist, left, right, centre, nationalist, anti-nationalist, non-nationalist or any other expression, they have been arguing, counter-arguing, etc., for many decades, without concluding but going on blaming others.

The available contemporary evidences should be preserved: Definitely, the available contemporary and Indian evidences should be preserved:

• The Mail, The Hindu, Indian Express (English dailies), Swadeshamitran, Navamani, Dinathanthi, Dinamani (Tamil dailies), Kalki, Ananda Vikatan, Kumudam, Kalkanu (Tamil magazines) contain day to day news of 19^th and 20^th centuries. Therefore, all such dailies in e-format should be made available to the public and researchers.
• Accordingly, the events and news of 1900 onwards had been well recorded.
• Even old photographs and cine-films contain the then existence condition of popular places, roads, buildings etc., that may add more evidence for history writing.
• The narratives 70-80-90-100 years old people should be recorded immediately, before they leave us with data and information.
• Audi alteram partem meaning “listen to the other side”, or “let the other side be heard as well”. Hence, the all sides, both sides or the other side of the events could be known and analyzed.
• Knowing the facts, they should be allowed to record for the posterity.

How to get Indian history completely?: For convenience, and familiarity, the Madras presidency, Madras and Madras related events, personalities and issues have been taken up for discussion. In the same way, the problems and facts of each state, important city and local leaders can be taken up, so that the whole India would be covered and such narratives can be compiled for future generations:

• As Indians have been divided based on language, region, religion, ethnicity and other factors, they have been compartmentalized in groups.
• However, there have been celebrations, festivals, tirta-yatras, going on 24×7 basis -unite all Indians and they are not controlled by any ideology.
• The print and electronic media now exposes many interesting facts of celebrations, festivals and events to the viewers and they could understand how they are in common, though, the names and places differ.
• Naturally, Indian culture, tradition, heritage and civilization unite them in all such gatherings.
• That they are Hindu need not be a communal factor, but, historical and therefore, such interpretation should be stopped in historiography. The common people of India not only do not know such interpretation and they do not bother also.
• That majority of Indians has been carrying on their activities with all the 1000 years disturbances etc., prove some inherent resilience among themselves.
• Therefore, the criticizing historians, disparaging historiographers and condemning writers should recognize such intrinsic resistance, innate spirit, inborn confidence, or inbuilt strength.
• As the biographies, autobiographies of leaders, scientists etc., have been published, the history of others can also be published, so that the current and as well as the future generations know them.
• Time will decide, who will be remembered for long and forgotten.
• The responsibility of all writers, speakers and lecturers should be to unite Indians.

Regional separatism, linguistic enthusiasm and state exclusivism should not affect India’s unity and integrity: As crores of Indians living far away from each other, yet enjoy the food, music, cinema, and so many other common things, with the modern connectivities, they can still come together. As armed forces have such spirit, all Indians should have unified feelings. If the regional parties, leaders and ideologists still want to question the Indian unity and integrity in different way, they would be only misleading the people of the respective state. The central-state relations would also be affected with such confronting attitude and verbose. Thus, the fellow-Indians of other states also could get affected with such confronting states creating uncomforted conditions. However, now in modern times, Indians of all states have been united together in many ways. Their relationships have been there in every state. The IT and similar jobs have made them to go different parts of India and work. Thus, millions have already been settled in other states during the last 75 years and they have already been converted to local conditions, speaking local languages and following customs.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-05-2024

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[1]  Rajani Palm Dutt, Problems of Contemporary History, 1963. Book published by Lawrence and Wishart (London, 1963).https://www.marxists.org/archive/dutt/1963/contemporary-history.htm

[2] Guha, Ramachandra. “The challenge of contemporary history.” Economic and Political Weekly (2008): 192-200.

[3] Ramachandra Guha, The Challenge of Contemporary History, Historia 54,1, Mei/May 2009, pp 112-128.

The author notes, “A somewhat different version of this article was published in the Economic and Political Weekly I am grateful to André Béteille, Sumit Guha, Mukul Kesavan, Sunil Khilnani, Srinath Raghavan, James Scott and two anonymous reviewers for their comments.”

[4] In Indian context, duty is always connected with responsibility, accountability and liability and therefore, the individual discipline is expected much that helps the growth of family and society.

Note- the graphics have been added to create awareness how anti-Indian forces, ideologists and writers have been working…..

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Government sponsored histories (4)

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Government sponsored histories (4)

October 19, 1952 to December 15, 1952 – hunger strike by Potti Sreeramulu: As there was delay again, Sreeramulu resumed his hunger strike on 19 October 1952, at the Madras house of Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurti. Tanguturi Prakasam Panthulu used to visit the hunger-strike camp daily and inquire about his health. The Gandhian, Yerneni Subrahmanyam, used to shed tears secretly seeing his plight. Though Sriramulu became physically weak, he was mentally strong and declined to give up his fast. On the 56^th day, he passed into a coma and a couple of days later, he developed breathing problems.  Sreeramulu died during the night of 15 December 1952. In his death procession, people shouted slogans praising his sacrifice, with thousands more joining as the procession reached Mount Road, Madras. This made them to shout[1], “All Aravavadus should die, and we want Andhra Rajaya”. The procession broke into a riot and accompanying destruction of public property.  Though, it happened in Madras, seldom this is discussed.

What EVR (1879-1973) was doing in 1952?: Soon after the Constitution was adopted on 26 January 1950, efforts were made to propagate Hindi for official usage. In 1952, the Ministry of Education launched a voluntary Hindi teaching scheme. On 27 May 1952, the use of Hindi was introduced in warrants for judicial appointments. The DK and DMK leaders were there in Madras carrying out their political activities. The DK version of Veeramani gives these details, “E.V. Ramasami Naicker opposed the scheme of New Elementary education on the basis of the parents hereditary occupation, introduced by the CM Rajaji  He and his followers erased with tar the Hindi-name-Boards in all Railway stations reportedly all over Tamil Nadu on July 27, 1952. ………The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution – Periyar Trust – A Public Charitable Society was registered in 1952.” However, the defacers of the Hindi letters were penalized and imprisoned on the grounds that they irritated the populace. However, the Anti-Hindi agitation, which began in August 1952, began to spread widely[2]. He stated that the Sanskrit script, Devanagiri, was used to write Hindi, but the agitation was against the language, not the script. At last, he pulled out the Counter Hindi fomentation with a confirmation from the press. If the government forced the use of Hindi, he made the decision to burn even the national flag[3]. However, in November 1952, there was news that EVR was supporting him for his policies[4] ending his 30-year old opposition. Therefore, it is not known how they were reacting to fast unto death of Potti Sreeramulu very near to their houses. How foreign media reported can also be noted in the context.

Anti-Hindi agitation and the formation of linguistic based states: The anti-Hindi agitation has to be analyzed carefully:

• When the demand was there for the creation of states based on language, why Hindi should be opposed in the context has to be noted.
• No separate state can be created with Hindi as the majority state, as Hindi is already used in the northern states.
• All the Hindi speaking areas cannot be formed into single state, as definitely other states would object to it. Thus, Hindi cannot be a uniting factor, even for Hindi speaking people.
• Unlike Tamilnadu, there has not been any serious opposition to Hindi from the South Indian states.
• In fact, the four South Indian states have to be created only based on four separate languages.
• Incidentally, in India next to Hindi, Telugu is spoken by many people.
• However, it is not known as to whether the Dravidologists opposed Telugu, as the agitated against Hindi. Therefore, the anti-Hindi agitation by the Dravidian protagonists seems to be more to the assumed race ideology and racism, rather than the linguistic reason. However, how the demand for “Dravidastan” was reduced to Tamilnadu and that was also abandoned by C. N. Annadurai (1909-1969) and all – is well-known. For coming to power, they sacrificed their ideological “Dravidastan”![5]

Why EVR could not have met Potti Sreeramulu when they were living / staying nearby?: Some may give a reason – In every state and every region, there had / has been many leaders and therefore, not much importance was / is given to all leaders and hence, some were / are not covered in the history books. However, communities, sectarians and  groups create their own leaders with literature. When they were living in the same time being contemporary, that too, with 5-10 kms, it cannot be said that they were not known to each other. When they were engaged in the social and political issues with their followers, it is unbelievable that they were carrying out such activities without knowing each other. In Madras, thus, thousands of leaders, politicians, scientists, musicians, religious Mutt Heads and others always used to come and go and meet also. When EVR had been so eager to meet Jinnah and Ambedkar and others, it is intriguing as to why he could not have met Potti Sreeramulu living nearby. In fact, he could have met him, discussed and resolved the issue also. However, such meetings, attempts or peace processes undertaken have not been noted or recorded by the historians or researchers.

A balanced view should be taken in portraying leaders: Netaji Subash Chandra Bose, Pon. Muthuramalinga Thevar, V.V.S. Iyer and such other leaders are not dealt with properly by historians and researchers. About the Bose, the end is in mystery. About others, though their work has been enormous and remarkable, not many of the current generation know about. While mythologization has been going on in other cases, as discussed above, here, in these cases, perhaps, negationism is followed so that they may be forgotten soon. As for as Indians are concerned, they have treated all leaders equally and know them. Definitely, the learned and experienced regional leaders worked with a national outlook, as they know all Indians have to live and carry out their duties and responsibilities by depending upon each other. Therefore, the history of them has to be recorded for posterity without any bias, prejudice and concoction on any account. The recent attempt of “Azadi ka Amrutotsav” has been good, as it brings out many regional freedom fighters to the public. As it is done through print and electronic media, the message reaches many Indian of all parts of India.

Government sponsored history would be one-sided only: Modern administrative, political, democratic and other processes may not be 100% foolproof. 50% voted and 50% not voted, yet the won candidates, with the majority party forms the government and rule.

• In the same way only, 700 years of Mohammedans ruled and 300 years of colonial forces rule, but they could not rule all the Indians living in all places of India.
• In fact, it is a myth that they ruled entire India, but, historians write and teach so.  
• Crores of Indians were living without any impact of these ruling groups.
• In other words, they were carrying out raids, looting and running way many times.
• Till they tried to negotiate with the local rulers and getting settled down, they could not rule Indians.
• For that only, they learned the languages, appointed Pundits, translators and dubashis and other negotiators.
• Then, they appointed Indian agents to collect money in the form of tax assuring to provide safety, army, artillery, horses and other facilities.
• Good managers, mediators and negotiators enjoyed life and earned much to become rich-mirasidar, tashildar and zamindar.
• Though, already such categories were there operating, these categories were Mohammedan and colonial sponsored ones.

Thus, the histories formulated or written by them would be of that nature only.  Here also, whatever history produced would be one-sided, official and imposed on others.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-05-2024

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[1] “Aravavalantha chavala, Andhra Rajyam kavala” M. P. Sivagnanam, Suyaatchi Pirivinaiya? (Is Autonomy Separation?), Inba Nilayam, Chennai,  1959, p.27.

[2] G.O. No. 3471, 1957, p.7.

[3] G.O. No.1814, 1953, p.3

[4] Indian Daily Mail, Periyar ends 30 year- old opposition to Rajaji, Singapore, 27-11-1952, front page.

[5] Remember, the Dravidologists asserted, “If at all we want to get, we shall get only Dravidastan, otherwise, crematory grounds” [அடைந்தால் திராவிட நாடு, இல்லையென்றால் சுடுகாடு = adainthal dravida nadu, illaiyendral sudukadu].

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Importance events sidelined and ignored (3)

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Importance events sidelined and ignored (3)

Editing, expunging and expurging the speeches and writings of the leaders: Now, every political party wants to save India, particularly, the party that wanted to break away from India, too claims so. About the ideology of the DMK, such tendencies are well known, as C.N. Annadurai himself ignored “Dravidastan” to contest elections and become the Chief Minister of Tamilnadu. The pranks, prangs, brawls and speeches and writings of them have also been well-known, yet, they are held in esteem. Many of them could not be printed and thus, they are edited, filled up with dots…… or totally expurged. Vulgar, unbecoming, unparliamentarily, offensive, disparaging, derogatory and all other words and expressions can be added, but, they do not equal with what they talked and written. The moment, they expired, statues are raised and elevated to the level of godhead. Ironically, though, they have been atheists and talk ill of Hindu religon, as recently, the DMK Minster has done with, and the cases pending with the Supreme Court and High Courts[1], their statues are put up and venerated. One pro-Dravidian researcher has researched about “dirty words” in Tamil[2], but, he coolly ignored this historical prank. He reportedly visited foreign countries to collect details about the Dravidian leaders, as if, he could not get such details from the local sources, directly, as they have registered offices, printing press and back-issues of their official dailies and journals.

Historians, historiographers and history writers have to update their subject in consonance with the development of science and technology: Nowadays, a paper “History of Indian science and Technology” is added to the students of history, archaeology, anthropology and related subjects, but, for some reason the visits of these scientists to India, their connection with Indian counterparts and how India has been managing with them, in spite of USA-USSR and later international ideological ramifications etc., are not known. Definitely, these visits form part and parcel of Indian recent history and reading history without them cannot give a full picture about the position of India in global context, are not included. Every subject has to be updated and made to be useful to people, as consumerism demands such usage. Though, the political history alone is not enough or work with countries like India, very often historians, historiographers and history writers restrict them to such a limited area. There also, as pointed out, they aid and abet politicians, powerful political lobbyists and corporate, and therefore, the 100-200 years history suffer from such lacuna, drawback and disadvantage.

The leaders, dignitaries and VIPs visited Madras and Tamilnadu and the related events: As many VIPs have visited Madras, Tamilnadu, the related events and their significance can be explained. Many recent historical events can be recorded, elaborated and discussed, but not done. Some of them are listed out here:

• 1896 – Winston Churchill’s visit to Madras
• Ambedkar visits to Madras
• 1927 – whether EVR met Gandhi or not.
• 1939 – Subash Chandra Bose visit to Tamilnadu
• 1941 – Jinnah’s visit to Madras. the Muslim league’s 28^th session in the Madras People’s park.
• EVR role in Vaikom Satyagraha.
• 1952 – Potti Sreeramulu fast unto death in Madras
• Ramanujan working at the Madras Port Trust.
• Aurobindo in Tamilnadu.
• V.V. S.Iyer in Tamilnadu.
• How Rajaji differed from Nehru[3].
• 1961 – Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, made their first visit to Madras Then came in 1997.
• The visits of the great scientists to India – Neils Bohr, Norbert Wiener, PMS Blackett, Joseph Needham and JBS Haldane.

• According to his note in the Blackett Papers, Royal Society, Patrick Blackett visited India in 1947, 1948, 1950, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1971.
• 1952 – JBS Haldane was the key-speaker at the Indian Science Congress, 39^th session, Calcutta.
• 1953 – Dr. Norbert Wiener who visited the Ramanujan Institute of Mathematics in 1953.
• In December 1954, Professor Dirac, one of the greatest physicists of the 20^th Century, gave a lecture at the Senate House of the University of Madras.
• 1960 January – Neils Bohr visited Madras.
• Jan 1964 – Second Anniversary Symposium of MATSCIENCE and the visits of Professor Leon Rosenfeld (Niels Bohr Visiting Professor) and McCrea Hazlett (Provost, Univ. Rochester.

These are given just for illustrative purposes and not exhaustive, while many VIPs visited many cities in India during the last 100-200 years, historians, researchers and others do not bother about. Instead, new myths are created about the leaders. Some are discussed below. As language was given more importance by the Dravidologists, such related issues are taken up. It is well-known that the  Dravidlogists claimed separate state / country “Dravidastan” based on the Dravidian / Tamil language, to be carved out of India, just like Pakistan. However, the Telugu speaking people wanted Andhradesa within India. This is the main difference.

The claim over Madras and Tirupati: The two alternative political solutions suggested by Andhra leaders were to make Madras as joint capital of Andhra and Madras States or to divide the City, allowing the areas north of the river Cooum going to Andhra and areas south of the river going to Madras states, which did not find favour with Tamils or central leaders. C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972), the then chief minister of Madras province, did not support Madras moving to Andhra State. On the Tamil peoples’ side M. P. Sivagnanam (Maposi 1906-1995) leader of a Tamil organization called Tamil Arasu Kazhagam agitated against Telugus’ claim organising rallies, meetings and dharnas etc., saying “talai koduttenum talainagaraik kappoom, vengadattai vitamattom” (We will protect and save the capital for Tamils even if we have to part with our heads, We will not give up our claim over Tirupati)[4]. With the demand of “Madharas manathe” movement, and the delay in the implementation of separate Andhra state, Potti Srimulu (1901-1952) started fast unto death[5]. The JVP (Jawahar, Vallabhbhai, Pattabhi) committee, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, would not accept that proposal with the Andhra State. The Congress leaders opined that despite the entreaties of supporters who stated that retention of Madras was a futile cause. Nehru ignored it[6] and Rajaji too ironically did not care to take steps[7]. The difference between Nehru and Rajaji is not discussed generally by the historians and researchers.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-05-2024

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[1] Udhayanidhi Stalin vs State of Maharashtra and Ors – similar cases pending in other courts also.

[2] A.R. Venkatachalapathy,   Dirty Words: A History of Swearing and Abuse in Tamil, Madras Institute of Development Studies, Chennai. This he presented at differet places including the 41^st session of APHC held at Anatapur in 2017.

[3] At Nehru’s invitation, in 1950, Rajagopalachari joined the Union Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio where   he served as a buffer between Nehru and Home Minister Sardar Patel and on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel’s death on 15 December 1950, Rajagopalachari was finally made Home Affairs Minister and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China and expressed regret over the Tibet problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate differences amongst the people. By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajagopalachari came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajagopalachari held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly opposed Nehru’s decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telangana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being persistently over-ruled by Nehru concerning critical decisions, Rajagopalachari submitted his resignation on the “grounds of ill-health” and returned to Madras.

[4] Maposi spearheadedthe counter movement, “தலை கொடுத்தேனும் தலைநகரைக் காப்போம், வேங்கடத்தை விடமாட்டோம்,” claiming Tirupati.

[5] Madrasi, also spelled as Madrassi, is a term used as a demonym and a regional slur for people from southern India, especially Tamil Nadu. In earlier usage it was a demonym to refer to the people of Madras Presidency, including the people of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and parts of Karnataka and Kerala, however this use of the term is now outdated. In present-day, the exonym Madrasi specifically refers to the people in living in Madras (officially called as Chennai), and the term Chennaite (or Chennaivasi) is the endonym for the people living in the city. Just like “Dravidastan,” this term has also restricted to be used for the people of Madras / Chennai.

[6] On 3rd December, Nehru wrote to Rajagopalachari: ‘Some kind of fast is going on for the Andhra Province and I get frantic telegrams. I am totally unmoved by this and I propose to ignore it completely.”

[7] Rjaji became the CM after the first legislative assembly Election to the Madras state based on universal adult suffrage that was held in 27 March 1952. This was the first election held in Madras state after the Indian Independence. This election was officially known as the 1951 Madras State Election, even though through delays, actual voting didn’t take place until early 1952.

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Mythologization of modern leaders (2)

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? Mythologization of modern leaders (2)

Only few Indians know all other leaders: Very often, people groups talk about their leaders like – Gandhi (1869-1947), Nehru (1889-1964), Patel (1875-1950), Bose (1897-1945), Rajaji (1878-1972), Jinnah (1876-1948), Ambedkar (1891-1956) and other mainstream heads and regional chiefs of the states. Though, thousands of other leaders, religious heads, scientists and others were there, they may not be known to all Indians, as they were not made publicized. Even after the spread of print and electronic media, such tendencies continue. Though, it cannot be called as censor, the influenced and controlled media has agenda to do so. The media allows the programs, news and other features only that are decided by the choice of the owners and not that of the viewers. Slowly such enforced burden continues and the viewers are accustomed to such imposed programmes. In the same way, the history writers and historiographers also decide what they write and what they do / should not write.

All Indian leaders should be studied: As the Indian recent history covers 100-200 years, definitely, the leaders of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka etc., may have also to be added. For the Bengalis, it is very familiar, as they used to get news about the nearby states including Myanmar, Thailand and beyond[1]. So also, the Punjabis still remember and get the news of their relatives, who are still in the Western Punjab in Pakistan. The relation of the Tamils of Tamilnadu with that of Sri Lanka is viewed carefully and seriously. But, the Indians of other states do not get such details.After all, Jinnah lived in India and his house is there in Bombay / Mumbai[2]. But, when Jinnah. EVR, Ambedkar and others decided to meet, they met at the house of Ambedkar and not at that of Jinnah. In fact, many, including historians do not know that Jinnah, EVR and Ambedkar met together. No historian or researcher raised any question about it. Historians do not talk about Western Punjab and East Bengal or East Bengal and West Bengal. Therefore, it is imperative that Indian students should read about the leaders of other states also.

The history of the leaders of India, pre-1947 India and after 1947 India: How these leaders acted, reacted and counter-acted can be noted during the British rule, before and after independence. Particularly, the study of separatist leaders has been interesting. Though millions of documents, lakhs of books and thousands of photos are available, not all are available in the public domain. Not all of them were handed over to India by the British and Indian government also made them open to all. Of course, when the Indian historians become biased, their likes and dislikes changed completely. When most of the senior leaders started dying after independence because of age, the next generation of leaders have not been so, the current generation lost the chance of knowing facts about them. When India itself was divided into Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Burma and Sri Lanka  either by administrative convenience or freedom struggle, separation created in knowing the leaders of other countries carved out of the “British India. ” When the  formation of linguistic based states within India completed, such exclusivism arose among the linguistic groups. Thus, the pre and post-1947 Indian history makes a lot of difference.

The politics of statue erection: Till 1970-80, Ambedkar was not known to the south, particularly, the Tamilnadu people. The DK-DMK leaders also did not bother about him.  Their speeches and writings show the fact. As they give importance and publicity about him, they did not do the same of them some 40-50 years back. But, suddenly, 1980s onwards, thousands of Ambedkar statues started appearing in Tamilnadu. At that time some even questioned, why statues for a person, who was not a Tamilian. Many Tamilnadu political and other leaders claim that they are the heir of Ambedkar and produce all sorts of rhetoric literature accordingly. Even if Prakash Ambedkar or Anandraj Yaswant Ambedkar comes to Tamilndu, they might be surprised or shocked to note how many are claiming the heir-ship. Mayavati started installing her statues in UP[3], just like what the Dravidian leaders did in Tamilnadu. Ironically, when the statue of Karunanidhi was installed, while he was alive, it was demolished on the occasion of death of his political rival MGR in 1987. Later, as mentioned above, the Ambedkar statues were started to be installed throughout Tamilnadu. The DK also joined the race with the installation of EVR statues everywhere. Thus, statue erection has beome a political culture in India.

Statue-tomb culture increasing in Tamilnadu: Now, perhaps none can / could point out the facts of the Dravidian leaders now elevated to divine level. Crores are spent to build memorials, buildings and other spots year by year. Thus, during the last 70 years, more and more neo-political-spiritual places are created. The tomb culture has already started from 1970 and now in Madras / Chennai, most of the Marina beach has been encroached by the tombs of C.N. Annadurai, M.G. Ramachandran, Jayalalita and M. Karunanidhi. There is a joke that every CM might reserve a place in the Marina Beach for the purpose. Their places of tombs have been constructed, reconstructed, renovated, modified, enlarged many times spending crores of money. Evidently, a new type of cult has been created and none can criticize such sectorial rituals, factional rites and group lirugy. The yearly rituals and ceremonies are conducted on the days of birth, death and other occasions. The beach has also been lined with many statues and they are increasing year by year. “Manimantapam” has become a routine affair and it is declared for every leader, evidently chosen based on caste, religion and other sectarian reasons. Under such circumstances, only esteemed eulogy, superlative tributes, and praising elegy are only allowed. The life-histories of all these leaders are not written or know to the public. Thus, tomb-statue culture also suppress the facts of the leaders.

Mythologization of life-histories of leaders: Even among the State / regional leaders like – Sheik Abdullah, Jagjivan Ram, Karpoori Thakur, Om Prakash Chautala, Charn Singh, Prafulla Kumar Mohanti, Lal Denga, Jyoti Basu, Biju Patnaik, N. T. Rama Rao, E. V. Ramasami Naicker, Potti Sriramulu, Nambudripad, Ramakrishna Hegde, Bal Thackery, Vijayaraje Sindia, Man Mohan Singh, etc., many of them are forgotten now. Only for illustrative purposes, few leaders have been mentioned and it is not exhaustive list. In many cases, their real life-histories have been mythologized, though, they lived just 100 years back and some are living also. The regional parties, of late, have been trying to mythologize and portray their leaders in the new cast, so that the past is erased or completely changed. As the political and social leaders are claimed by different parties, they try to project them to suit their ideology and hence suppress the facts that are not suitable to them. Thus, the suppression of facts work in different ways with the modern mythologization. Here, also no historian or researcher gives 100% authentic biography, yet, lessons are included in the textbooks for students to read and answer as per the designed pattern, as otherwise, the students cannot get marks and even pass the exams.

How facts are suppressed[4]: Generally, negationism[5] is applied to suppress all the negative aspects of life of any particular leader and new positive aspects are added year by year by the followers, disciples and admirers. However, as the relatives, friends and contemporaries live even today, they know the facts and hence, they point out in incorrect projection of such leader. Here also such persons are threatened or warned not to meet any persons, give interview and so on. Thus, the old persons of 70 to 100 years old are also prevented to tell the truth. Of course, in the 100-200 years newspapers also, some news would have come and researcher could find out. Here also, the researchers are harassed and access denied maximum. They are asked to come again and again, send back on flimsy pretext and thus, they too stop coming. Yet, such details are prevented to be recorded in the mainstream media, books and journals. Even in the research journals, conference proceedings and seminar compilations, certain vested interests see that they are excluded. Thus, systematically such details are suppressed forever and in due course, they are forgotten.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-05-2024

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[1]  The Greater India Society for the study of Indian culture in East, South East and Central Asia. The terms the Society used in its aims and objects to describe the vast geographical expanse of what it felt constituted ‘Greater India’ now are largely forgotten and perhaps sound somewhat archaic: ‘Serindia, India Minor, Indo China and Insulindia’ referring respectively to what corresponds now roughly to modern Xinjiang, India, South East Asia and North West Pakistan, Afghanistan and parts of Iran. 

[2] Jinnah Mansion, also known as the South Court, is an unoccupied house in Malabar Hill, a premium neighbourhood of the city of Mumbai in India associated with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder and first governor-general of Pakistan. It was built by Jinnah and remained his main residence for 10 years until he left in 1946 for Karachi.

[3] Mayavati justified before the Supreme Court during the hearing in 2009 petition against the profusion of statues of Mayawati, her mentor Kanshi Ram and elephants – her party Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)’s symbol – built at parks in Lucknow and Noida with taxpayers’ money when she was chief minister between 2007 and 2012. The statues of bronze, cement and marble had critics accusing her of self-obsession and megalomania.

[4]  As the author himself has faced and undergone all such problems, such exigencies can be explained in detail, yet, it is not possible.

[5] Historical negationism, also called historical denialism, is falsification or distortion of the historical record. It should not be conflated with historical revisionism, a broader term that extends to newly evidenced, fairly reasoned academic reinterpretations of history. In attempting to revise the past, historical negationism acts as illegitimate historical revisionism by using techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mistranslating texts.

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? – Ideological struggle (1)

Is it difficult to write 100-200 years old history faithfully and honestly in the Indian context? – Ideological struggle (1)

Writing recent and contemporary history: The true, authentic and 100% genuine history of the persons who were, have been and are so dominant, powerful and authoritarian, cannot be written faithfully and sincerely. So also the political, military and martial activities, struggles and combats cannot be recorded honestly. Though the facts of such persons and events are known to many, they may not be able to tell them out openly. Even if fallen angels are there, it is difficult to write about them or making angels out of demons is also a much more difficult task. As time goes on, either people start forgetting the past or the past is made to be forgotten by the vested groups.  Mostly, such narratives and discourses result in whitewashing or colourwashing the contemporary history. Historians claim that they do not require any objectivity, then, it works well with the writing history of the current leaders and events. Censor, editing, expurgation, expunction and even destroying evidences had / have been the processes of suppression of facts. In history writing or historiography, whether the intention or their culpability of historians to do so, is not known or discussed.

Is the history of the last 100 – 200 years known to all Indians?: India has been divided into States and Union territories, mostly based on the linguistic factor and few on other colonial related issues[1].

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands (later renamed Lakshadweep)
• Delhi
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
• Manipur
• Pondicherry, Mahe, Yanam
• Tripura
• Himachal Pradesh

Significantly, the history of the last 100 – 200 years is not known to Indians of the current generation and also youth.  The South Indians do not read the history of North-west and North-east of India. Andaman and Nicobar, Laccadive Islands are considered as tourist spots and their history is not studied. The north-eastern states are rarely read either in history books or daily newspapers. Whenever, anything negative happened, that is alone prominently reported[2]. This type of unbalanced conditions creates many misunderstandings among the common people. Many North-eastern and Kashmir students are found in many Universities and Colleges in South India and other places. Though, they could be identified easily, they are treated well and return to their states with degrees. Perhaps, they carry the sweet memories (with some history) also to their native places. However, it is not known how many South Indians, particularly, the Tamils or Dravidian protagonists go to the North-east and study there. Of course, there is no peaceful conditions there in Kashmir and north-east like other parts of India. Therefore, the students who studied and going back, should tell their people to keep their states peaceful, and conducive so that students from other states go there and study.

The syllabus of the State cannot differ much from the national main-stream: Each State and Union Territory have their Ministry of Education and department and they formulate the syllabi for all the subjects taught in the schools and colleges. Though, SCERT has been there, the State Education Department takes decisions, finalizes syllabi, produce books and distribute them. Thus, ultimately, only those books have authority over the students for all purposes. Here, whenever the government changes with the newly elected political party, the syllabus, particularly that of arts, humanities and languages are subjected to change. The lessons of erstwhile government rulers, details and favourites would be removed completely. The life-history of the leaders of the newly elected party-government would be included in edited version[3]. This is how, the state and regional textbooks suffer. Thus, the State Board, Matriculation, NCERT and other categories have their own syllabus and books also. Mostly, they cater to the needs of the candidates appearing for competitive exams also. Thus, such books help the students well. If this difference, differentiation and categorization impact the students, then, the academic experts should be careful for balanced conditions. As crores of Indian students appear for many common entrance examinations, they cannot be fed only with the regional affairs. Nowadays, language is also made controversial for competitive entrance examinations[4].

Race, race-related myth, hypotheses and theories are followed: Linguistic superiority, importance and divisive issues also make certain states to behave differently in their approach towards other states that speak different languages. Definitely, the “Aryan-Dravidian” dichotomy makes the pro-linguistic harbingers to have a distinctive ideology in South India[5]. The concept of race was proven unscientific and such hypotheses and theories were rejected already[6]. The ideologically moulded propagandists with the concepts of race, racism, racialism, language, caste and related social issues make more divisive conditions[7]. New hypotheses and theories have been floated, developed and even included in the academicia and such modern-day racial myths are made to believe[8]. Ironically, the historians promote and support such unscientific race related hypotheses and theories. Even international experts change their stand, if they change their stages[9]. As far as the political leaders are concerned, they are not bothered about anything scientific, though, they reportedly hail science and technology. Thus, the history of their leaders is suppressed, edited and even modified to suit the political, social, economic and religious exigencies.

Communism is mixed with regional separatism easily: With the Communism added to certain political splinter groups and the Communists themselves divide them into different groups with various ideologies interpreted[10]. Thus, these fringe elements joining with other separatist parties join together ruling roost with people groups. Linguistic exclusivism turned regional separatism gets ideological support from these ideological groups. Thus, the ideological concepts of self-determination, the right to secede and such others ideas are with the linguistic exclusivism, regional separatism and racial superiority[11]. Either North India or South India always placed each other at loggerheads without any major problem that reflects even today in socio-economic and religious-political issues. Now, the north-Indian workers working in Tamilnadu has been made a political issue, however, the infiltration of Bangladeshi workers is not questioned. In fact, Mamta Banerjee has an accommodative political policy for them[12]. Politically, though, the Communists lost their power, ideologically, they continue to influence historians, history forums and history, as could be noted from the proceedings of IHC, SIHC etc.

Politicized commerce, ideologized business and monopolized trade: Newly generated cinema, cricket and media commercializations cross all linguistic bearers, of late, they also add to the existing separatist tendencies[13]. Here, surprisingly just like medieval Indian martial and marital alliances, they too have coalition, alliances, franchise etc., converting such business enterprises to monopolies. “Hindi teriyadu poda” (I do not know Hindi) and making Hindi films, creating Hindi and other north-Indian language channels etc., have become their part of business, where their contradictions are not hidden or suppressed[14]. Thus, here, also, the audience or consumers can only see only what the media magnets impose and not what the viewers want. However, regularly, the mobile and internet charges are paid by the common public and collected by those who politicized business and monopolized trade. Thus, the followers might be surprised how their favourite Heroes have been in the wrong side or in different politicized lobby[15]. Under such circumstances also, the media gods and goddesses cannot be questioned, even, many know about their recent-past history.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-05-2024

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[1]  For various reasons, the status of them are kept as Union Territory and also changed to State, vice versa, as happening in the case of several North-eastern states.

[2] Recently, much has been reported and debated in the local Tamil channels about the Manipur incidences, as otherwise, Manipur is never thought of by them.

[3] All the details that are not favorable would have been removed and other details glorifying that characteristics, whether they were possessed by the leaders or not, would have been mentioned there. In fact, the book-writers of such caliber only be appointed as the members of text-book committee.

[4] The NEET (UG) 2023 would be conducted in these languages: English, Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. 

[5]  In Tamilnadu, even today the politicians, theoreticians and ideologists – known as Dravidologists – believe in the Aryan-Dravidian races and target one particular community for their survival.

[6]  Yet, they talk about “Dravidian stock,” “Dravidian model” etc., and produce books also for propaganda.

[7] But, the main-stream elite, eminent, emeritus, progressive and other secular bandwagon of historians do not correct, check or condemn them, rather promote them.

[8]  The existence of races Aryan and Dravidian, Aryan invading India and driving the Dravidians to South and such other theories are still accepted and studied in the academic syllabus and competitive examinations.

[9] The speeches of Asko Parpola during the last 50 years could be noted – when he attended Chemmozhi conference and presented his paper, he changed completely.

[10]  Many groups were / are operating e.g., – The Tamil Nadu Liberation Army (TNLA) – https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/TNLA.htm

[11]  Even political parties have been there with such ideologies, but now, slowly, they have started playng down and singing different song. It may be noted that PMK of Tamilnadu was having such ideology, but, now it is in the NDA / BJP alliance in 2024.

[12]  There have been a lot of news, how the infiltrated Bangladeshis are settling down in the border areas of West Bengal getting Aadhar  card, Voter ID, ration card etc.,

[13] India has to deal with thousands of such groups – https://www.satp.org/terrorist-groups/india

[14] I do not know Hindi – எனக்கு இந்தி தெரியாது போடா became some sort of propaganda with T-shirts, social media postings etc., where, the DMK leaders too participitated.

[15] The advertisements appearing – from cricket to real estate – in the print and electronic media speaks volumes of such duality or commercial hypocrisy.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

Sind / Sindh had been part of India / Bhart for centuries, till Arabs invaded and tried to Islamize……

The warriors of Sindh were resisting them with their valour……

However, they could not match with the cunningness of their enemies, when they were following the code of conduct of war etc…..

In 712, the invasion started, within 300 – 400 years, Sindh was Islamized……

and slowly, all the monuments, temples, sculptures etc., started disappearing, as the iconoclasts were destroying them regularly……

now the condition of Hro-stones are like this…….

Hero-stones in Sind: Lower Sindh in southern Pakistan is dotted with many ancient cemeteries boasting the tombs of fallen heroes, and stones erected in memory of their heroism and chivalry (Hero stones). Most of the tombstones bear weaponry depictions symbolizing death in the line of action or at least participation in battle. They are found at Oongar in the district of Thatta, province of Sindh and , a Jats burial site, is located fifty kilometres from the city of Hyderabad, close to the Buddhist stupa of Sudheran in the district of Tando Muhammad Khan, also in Sindh[1]. One finds inscriptional slabs lying all over the site at the cemetery of the Jats but it is difficult to find any inscriptions at all at the Oongar necropolis since all of the chaukhandis have disintegrated and not a single tombstone is in its original condition[2]. In other words, they were destroyed and only parts are available there now. Hero-stones and sati stones found in the Sind province of present Pakistan has been pointed out by many and also noted that they are disappearing[3]. Central Asian and Bactrian areas exhibit broken sculptures of many panels and they are identified and interpreted differently. As the Indian kings / people were massacred there, it is mentioned as Hindu-kush = Hindus blood i.e,  the Hindus were  completely routed and eliminated there, and hence, memorial stones must have been erected. Till “Hindu-kush” occurred incidence at that area, they were there struggling with invading groups. Thus, only left out monuments have been recorded by Auriel Stein during his exploration. After Talibanization, even sculptures in the museums were destroyed and therefore, the fate of the sculptures and paintings found at the sites cannot be imagined.

Memorial stones in Cambodia / Siam / Thailand: In the Siamese culture, schools pointed out about the bloody sacrifice to the Earth Goddess offered at the Door of the Underworld, an ancient tree, a termite mound, a cave, a ring of stones[4]. At the time of the Buddhist ordination ceremony and its site, the Uposatha hall was surrounded by a ring of stones. Michael Wright noted that, “There is no evidence that these stones were developed from anything in India or Lanka, whereas scholars have proposed an affinity with prehistoric circles of rough-hewn stones found in the Northeast.” However, as the South Indian merchant guilds were having close contacts with these areas, there were possibilities that some sailors, merchants and other crew members might have died there and they might have erected memorial stones for them. Stone circles are considered as memorial stones, as noted above. Here, in the Siamese tradition, as there had been mixture of several peoples, the changes noted would be appreciable. Whether such circle stones were used for good or bad purposes – is also difficult to ascertain now. In any case, they were associated with sacrifice / death only.

Interpreting death, last rites and memorial stones in the context of race, language etc., by the colonial and other ideologists: Indians must have had their territory touching the other dominant civilizations like Sumerian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek and Chinese. Thus, their influence on the other cultures has been appreciable. That is why most of the people of the ancient civilizations wanted to come to India.  Indologists were pointing out such similarities and facts during last 150-300 years, but, suddenly changed their attitude. Thus, they changed their theory of the origin of race from the Ganges valley to other places[5]. The historiography was also changed accordingly. The glorification of Indian civilization turned to criticizing even disparaging. This attitude could be noted from the works of William Jones also. With the history writing of Vincent Smith, the Indian history was reduced to 2000 years starting with the Alexander’s invasion / Asokan script. About philosophy, initially, the world scholars accepted that India was the origin of philosophy, thus, every book of philosophy started with Indian philosophy. Thus, the fight started between India and Greece and Indian history has been made to start after Alexander’s invasion, the “sheet anchor of” Indian history. Then, “Aryan-Dravidian” race theory was introduced to dive, but the underlying concepts (rites conducted from birth to death) match with each other. However, the comprehensive and holistic study of Hero-stones gives a different picture. Again, one could note the commonality, in spite of the fact that such practices were carried on far and wide and even chronologically varied from Bronze Age to Modern Age.

Conclusion: Only few examples have been given for each area and state for illustrative purposes. An exhaustive study can also be made incorporating all details after conducting field study and reading local literature. Thus, with limited study and the above discussion, the following points are noted as conclusion:

• The belief in soul, transmigration of soul, karma, life after death, rebirth, cycle of birth and death, etc., have been the basis for the creation of the memorial stone.
• Even during the Bronze Age period, Indian Hero-stones were found in the Central Asia, but, portions were destroyed.
• There is difficult in connecting protohistory with historic narratives in the Indian context, as historians have such thumb rule.
• Logically, scientifically and technologically, such restriction appears to be artificial, inconsistent and redundant considering many other archaeological, material and scientific evidences.
• After the Mahabharat War around 3102 BCE, the participant armies with warriors dispersed and started moving to their destination[6]. However, as some could not reach, they settled down on the way and they became new dynasties and people groups. However, many commonalities could be noted among these people groups[7].  Jains – essences, gymnosophists (people wearing no dress or white dress); Rajaputs – Scythians, etc[8].
• The Hero-stones were found in the areas of Central Asia, Gandhara, Sind and other provinces on the west and Burma, Siam, Kedah etc., on the East.
• That Indic / Hindu / Vedic / Sanatana believing people were living in many parts of the world, at a particular time can also be understood and known from the prevalent of memorial stones and related philosophy.
• Thus, the memorial stone erection had been an Indian practice found from the Bronze Age to 18^th century.
• The dichotomy of dividing Indians based on race, language etc., is also cleared considering the prevalence of memorial stones in different places as pointed out, as “karma” continues!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Memorial Stones of Sindh, Pakistan: Typology and Iconography.” Puralokbarta 1 (2015): 285-298.

[2] . According to the notables of Oongar, village people have purportedly removed many of the decorative slabs either to sell in the lucrative markets in such items or simply in order to decorate their drawing rooms with these valuable pieces of art. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” P.54

[3] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art 27 (2010): 232-238.

[4] Wright, Michael. “Sacrifice and the underworld: death and fertility in Siamese myth and ritual.” Journal of the Siam Society 78.part 1 (1990).

[5] Léon Poliakov. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York, 1974.

As the European Indologists were using the expression “Aryan,” perhaps, even the Sanskrit scholar like B.G. Tilak was misled and tried to locate the Aryan origin to “Arctic region.”

[6]  Even the Greeks were mentioned as “degraded khastriyas,” by old Indologists, but, such details were suppressed later in 20^th century itself.

[7] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[8]  These are discussed by Richrd Garbe, Col. Tod and others linking Christianity with India, lost tribes etc.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The Chayasthambas: Chaya-sthamba (shadow + pillar) is a memorial pillar bearing the image of the deceased. It implies that the person is dead, but, he / she lives there as a shadow i.e, either spirit or memory lives there as a memorable symbol. The Cayasthambhas of Andhra Pradesh are herostones and memorial stones. Karnataka and Maharashtra contain a large number of sati and hero-stones. This series fall in the early medieval period (5th, 6th century CE. onwards) and have been dated to 5th to 14th-15th centuries CE. The series from Maharashtra does not contain any inscription hence the dating has to be done on stylistic grounds. Apart from these areas, such memorial stones are found in Madhyapradesh, Bihar, Kashmir and Orissa. In Odisha, this form of the Divine Mother is often designated as Stambhesvari (Khambhesvari), or as Kandhunidevi i.e. the deity of the aboriginal Khonds[1]. Parvati is considered as lithic counterpart of Siva Liga and thus, Stambheswari or Khambheswari. That Parvati is also known as Sati, Chaya, Sakti, part of Siva (Ardha-nareswara) and so on. Thus, all these point to Dhakhsyayini episode, from which the Sati concept was evolved.

India-1947 is not the India, studied historically: India of c3500 BCE has been entirely different from that India- 2500 BCE, India – 1000 CE and India – 1947. Sind touching the boundaries of Persia and Arabia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Balochistan – on north-west and Brahmadesa, Yuan, and Indo-China on the north-east and thus, India was existing in such a vast geographical area[2]. That is why the Persian and Greek sources say that Darius and Alexander wanted to invade India. They were characteristically mentioned as “India intra-gangem” and “India extra-gangem.” Interestingly, these areas were ruled by the Rajaput warrior class rulers. Thus, Hero-stones are found in these areas. There are certain documents, as pointed out by Edward Pocoke[3], Col. Tod[4] and others that Vikramaditya was ruling parts of Arabia[5]. The similarities between the Greeks and Indians were pointed out by many scholars including William Jones[6], Richard Garb end others. As the Persians, Greeks and Arabs started intruding from c.500 BCE to 712 CE, the Indian kingdoms and dynasties started getting affected by them.  With the Islamization, these parts changed completely and with the creation of Pakistan, whatever left out Indian monuments have also been subjected to vandalism and official forceful encroachment and thus, temples have started disappearing. Under such circumstances, the study of Hero-stones and Sati stones is very difficult.

Memorial stones found in Kashmir from the Neolithic period: During the Neolithic period-II, a stone slab with its base 70cm wide was found half buried upside down in a pit at Burzhom[7]. The engraved side was made smooth with proper polishing. Unfortunately, the upper most part of the stone is partially damaged resulting into the loss of the upper part of the engraved scene. The scene depicts five things, Two men, an antelope, a dog and two double-layered circular objects with rays on outer wall like a sun. One man is standing at the rear end of the stag with a long rod-like structure, most probably a spear in the right hand. The second man, shooting an arrow in the chest of the stag is at the front. His left leg is in air crouching back. All these clearly prove that it was a hero-stone, but, now found in a damaged condition. Massive menhiris that can be still found at the site, gritty red ware wheel made Pottery, rubble structures and a few metallic objects were found belonging to this period of Megalithic culture. Thus, the megalithic burial practices continued with Neolithic burial practices and thereafter.

Pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan monuments of Kashmir: In Kashmir, there were hundreds and perhaps thousands of Memorial / Hero stones and as well as Sati Stones. The earliest examples of memorial stones recorded from Kashmir date back to circa 2nd -3rd century CE.  Thus, the reason for such practice has to be analyzed. Here, the narrative would be that of the pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan periods. The Muslim writers used to interpret in that way dividing the period. They were found in every nook and corner of the Valley, these memorial stones reflect a widespread practice based on the tenets of ‘hero worship’ as well as ‘ritual death’ like ‘Praya’ and Sati. As usual, Kashmiris haven’t documented much, the stones are simply called ‘memorial stones’. Kashmir is known as ‘Satidesh’ (Land of Sati). The mythical origins of the valley come from the story of Sati, the first wife of Shiva who immolated herself. Still, these stone memorials stand testimony to a time when women were burnt alive and then worshipped. When the Mohammedans attacked during the medieval period, the women of that area would have resorted to sati or Jowher to save their honour, just like Rajaput women.

Disappearing Hero stones of Kashmir: One of the first archaeological reports on ancient monuments of Kashmir did mention the probability that these were ‘sati-stones’. Rai Sahib Daya Ram during his survey of monuments of Kashmir in around 1915 wrote: “Another class of antiquities of this late period which are very common everywhere in Kashmir, are a kind of memorial spans which might have been sati stones. […] The face of the slab is divided into two compartments, the upper one containing a standing figure of Bhairava with this usual emblems, and the lower a female figure seated between a bird and a dog, the vehicle of the deity referred to. In some examples, the female is represented as seated by the side of her deceased husband.” Daya Ram in ‘Pre-Muhammadan Monuments of Kashmir’ ascribes the stone slabs to 14th century, the late part of Kashmir History, towards the end of Hindu rule when no big shrines were anymore constructed. Rajatarangini tells us 14th century was a turbulent time as the local powers where constantly at war with each other and Islam was introduced in Kashmir. Men were dying in wars and women were getting burnt.  This brings us to the other kind of memorial stones found in Kashmir: the ‘Hero-Stones’ Some memorial slabs kept at SPS Museum, Srinagar. During the administration of Dewan Kirpa Ram [(1826-1830)] Kashmiri Pandits resumed the ancient practice of Sati in all likelihood persuaded by the Sikhs and the Punjabi Hindus[8], because of the Mohammedan atrocities. So these details would become another “Kashmir Files”!

Statues of dead in Tukistan, Central asia: In Turkistan, the hero statues have been found erected like Hero-stones[9]. The researchers accepted that[10] “The custom of making a statue to a dead warrior is reflected in the heroic epic as well.” The statues found of bust size, elongated size etc., resemble hero-stone only, though, the researchers do not mention with such expressions. But, when they were erected to commemorate dead warriors, they come under hero-stones only. As Islam prohibits idol-worship, perhaps, they do not mention with such explicit expressions. In fact, Yaroslav Vassilkov[11] confirms that they are Indian Hero-stones only and they belonged to the Bronze Age. Therefore, a question arises why the Indians living there resorted to such practices there. During that period, whom the Indian heroes were fighting against and getting martyrdom, so that memorials could be built for them. While the controversy of Aryans migrating from Central Asia to Indus Valley and from there to South India has been there and persistently believed even today by the Dravidologists, such events have to be analyzed critically.

Hero-stones at Mizoram: The North-eastern India was facing ethnic and tribal conflicts, at the Chinese were always trying to control other people. Till the medieval – 13th century, the North-eastern India and beyond were part of the “Greater India” and under Indian influence. Thus, the Hero-stones of Mizoram[12] have been interesting to study. The Mizo raised stones over graves in memory of deceased family members[13]. In the case of a chief, the memorial stone is erected at the entrance of the village. There may be two different types of memorials among the Mizo, the stones which are erected over a grave and therefore, connected with burials and another erected at the entrance of the village which are meant only as memorials and have no connection with burials. Besides hero-stones, memorial-type stones are also found in the villages of Mizoram[14]. The Mizo megaliths serve as Memorial stones or Commemorative stones in functionality. The Mizo raised stones in memory of the deceased. The use of wood or stone, or both as memorials to the dead and to the living is also another characteristic feature of this tradition.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] B. C. Pradhan, Sakti worship in Odisha, Ph. D. Dissertation Sambalpur University, 1983, p. 39.

[2]   Now some writers denote it as “Greater India,” Akhanda Bharat etc., but the fact is that “India” of 3500 BCE is bigger than the 1947-India.

[3]  Edward Pockoke, India in Greece,

[4]  Col.Tod, The Annals and antiquities of Rajastan, Three volumes, Motilala Banrasidas, New Delhi. 

[5] Whether the Vikramadiya story is myth, mythistory, mythology etc., or not, he has been so popular and lives among the people even today through many sources. Only Vincent Smith dubbed him as myth and he was consigned accordingly.

[6]  William Jones, On the Chronology of Hindus, in The Works of sir William Jones, Vol.IV, pp,1-48, 1789.

P. J. Marshall (Ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, Cambridge university Press, UK, 1970,

[7] Dar, Mohammad Ashraf. “Earliest History Of Kashmir (Archaeological And Geological Perspective).” International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS)

Volume 3 Issue 13, December 2016.

[8] R. K. Parmu, A History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, 1819-1846, Peoples Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1969.

[9] Kubarev, G. V. “Ancient Turkic statues: Epic hero or warrior ancestor?.” Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 29.1 (2007): 136-144.

[10] Sher Ya.A. 1966, Drevnetyurkskie plemena v zerkale arkheologii. In Stepnye imperii Evrazii. St. Petersburg: Farn, pp. 92 – 165.

[11] Vassilkov, Yaroslav. “Indian” hero-stones” and the Earliest Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Bronze Age.” Journal of Indo-European Studies 39.1/2 (2011): 194.

[12] Singh, Salam Shyam. “Hero stones and other archaeological remains of Lianpui Mizoram.” Journal of History, Art and Archaeology 2.1 (2022): 53-62.

[13] Nayan, Sujeet, and Moirangthem Jackson Singh., Menhirs and Petroglyphs of Vangchhia,  Indian Journal of Archaeology 7.1 (2022): 53-84.

[14] SINGH, SS. “Archaeological Remains at Zote in Mizoram, in 50 Years after Daojali-Hading: Emerging Perspectives in the Archaeology of Northeast India,

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The place where erected: Similarly, the place where the memorial stones were erected has also been a part of research studies.

1. Generally, where the person attained martyrdom, that spot was chosen for erecting the hero-stone.
2. The scholarly tradition[1]  maintains that a hero-stone was raised on the spot where the hero fell or where his remains were buried, or alternatively in his native village or in the place where his relatives lived.
3. However, they we either disturbed or shifted to other convenient places.
4. The current position of the materials, however, hardly corresponds to the original one. Many have been relocated inside museums or temple premises, either as freestanding elements or as structural components; but even when found at the crossroads of hamlets, under trees or next to water reserves, one cannot ignore that some transformative process must have intervened over the centuries and reshaped the landscape (e.g. due to the construction of a new road, or to cropland expansion).
5. Archaeological excavations never occurred systematically in the past, so that at present, threatened by increasing urbanization, the veracity of both primary and secondary sources on this issue is de facto unascertainable.
6. Formation of new states / countries and vandalism also responsible for the disturbance or even destruction of hero-stones.

These erected stones at the villages and remote areas might have become distant or deserted places, due to urbanization etc., and thus, slowly neglected and forgotten. The enthusiastic explorers and others, very often claim that they “discovered” the hero-stones and so on!

Stone usage in the Megalith burials and tribals: Man and stone-usage cannot be separated. Modernism and urbanization might have changed the life-style, but, its usage continues, as could be noted, at least in the kitchens. In India, every group of people follow certain “samskaras”  traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies where, stones play an important role. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition in India, as the practice of erecting megaliths in honour of the dead is still found among the tribals living in northeastern, eastern, central and south India like the Khasis and the Garos and the Syntengs of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and the Karbis of Assam, the Nagas of Manipur and Nagaland, the Hos and the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Gonds and the Morias of Chattisgarh, the Kurumbas of Kerala, the Bondos and the Gadabas of Orissa and the Savaras of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Thus, its prevalence in all states can be noted.

Hero-tones in South India: The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu is more than 2400 years old that is 4^th century BCE. According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones is found in the Indian state of Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest in Karnataka is dated to the 5^th century CE. The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (400 BCE) though a vast majority were erected between the 4^th century BCE to 13^th century CE. During this period, the dynasties were fighting with each other, and later I the medieval period resisting the Arab / Mohammedan intrusion into South India. Thus, the Hero-stones inculcated the memory of fallen heroes for their sacrifices to protect their boundaries, properties and power.

Sati – Widow burning was prevalent among all the ancient civilizations:  It has been argued by them that sati, now popularly known and understood as the practice of widow-burning did not originate from the ancient Indians, as it is commonly believed and propagated, but had roots in the ancient Egypt, Greek, and other European civilizations. It was among the Gauls, the Goths, the Norwegians, the Celts, the Slavs and the Tharcians. In Egypt, the processions of a king, Pharaoh were buried along with him or a pyramid built over his body, while in Greece women entered into the pyres of their dead husbands. Similar pyre sacrifices were prevalent among almost all ethnic groups of Europe. In China, if a widow killed herself in order to follow her dead husband to heaven, her corpse was taken out in a great procession[2]. Col. James Tod mentions that Female immolation originated with the Sun-worshipping Saivas and was common to all those nations who adored this as the most splendid object of the visible creation[3]. Here, also, the terms and expressions used have to be understood properly:

1. Sati – Voluntary self-immolation of wife. Getting into a pyre voluntarily, “Udankattai-erudhal” as mentioned in Tamil.
2. Sati – Widow burning – Sometimes, interpreted as forced (as interpreted from Mohammedan and colonial writers).
3. Jauhar, sometimes spelt Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by females, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by Turko-Persian Islamic invaders, when facing certain defeat during a war.

Satikal prominent in and around Rajasthan area: Sati and hero-stones are important and studied in the context. Rajasthan, and nearby areas are prominent with Satikal, because of the Mohammedan atrocities, as they are well-known, they are not discussed. The hero-stones from Central India have emerged from a tribal context and concern tribal chiefs. They are invaluable in understanding attitudes to death and belief patterns of tribes. The hero-stones from Western India reflect the physical and social ecology of the area in their pictographic context. Those that depict cattle raids in their lowest panel are understood as indicators of a dominant pastoral economy of the past. These hero-stones are found only in a specific area of the semi-arid tract of Western India. The hero and sati stones are largely found in Western, Central and Southern India. From Rajasthan We basically two types of hero-stones found. They are Paliyas (single panelled stones) and the Govardhan pillars that have a sculpted top. Sati practice is found in the Tamilndu also as recorded in the literature and inscriptions[4].

Why there were more hero-stones in Karnataka?: The relation between death and memorial stones and glorifying death and other concepts are inter-related and highly spiritual also. S. Settar pointed out[5] how the Jains identified eight types of death grouped under three categories –

1. Bala-marana – childish or foolish death
2. Pandita marana – wise death and
3. Pandita-pantita marana – the wisest of wise deaths

Then there are other types of marana –

• Sanyasana-marana – death through renunciation
• Sallekhana-marana – death through fasting
• Ardhana-marana – death through worship
• Pancapada-marana – death through prayer
• Pantita-marana – death through knowledge or wisdom
• Samadhi-marana – death through mediation etc.,

The Jains used to debate with the Buddhists and Hindus setting “death” as a precondition for the defeated. The Karnaka inscriptions show how the defeated were crushed in oil-mills. However, to glorify them, hero-stones might have been erected for them. Thus, the Jaina literature has elaborately dealt with death and also the Jains erecting monuments for the dead. As the Jains were dominant in Karanaka during the medieval period, the hero-stones were also found maximum there.

The Govardhan pillars: The Govardhan pillars are memorials for those who died in a cattle raid, but battle scene are also depicted at times. Sri  Krishna lifted the Govardhan hill and saved people – thus, lifting the Govrdhan hill is considered as a Herculean task and thus, the name “Govardhan pillar”! A sati would normally be shown by depiction of a couple facing each other. Chronologically, these stones would fall within the 6th to 7th  and 13th-14th century CE periods. The Saurashtra series is of a relatively recent period, belonging to the last three to four hundred years (16^th-17^th centuries). Here the most frequent occurrence is of Paliyas. The Paliyas are normally linked to cattle raids, skirmishes and village disputes. This is similar to the cattle seizing, cattle raiding and cattle recovering practices of the ancient Tamil Sangam people[6]. South India and Maharashtra can be easily termed as the heartland of hero-stones. The hero-stones from Tamil Nadu fall roughly within the 6^th to the 12^th century CE.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Vanamamalai, N. 1975. Herostone Worship in Ancient South India, In Social Scientist, 3, 10, pp. 40-46.

[2]  C. H. Tawney, Kathasaritsaaara, Vol.I, Terminal Essay on Suttee by Pensei, Appendix – I, pp.255-272.  He pointed out that such practice was there among all the ancient civilizations.

[3]  Col. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan , Motilal  Bararasidas, New Delhi, Vol.II, 1971, p.737.

[4] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Sati In Ancient Tamil Literature , A paper presented at 11th session of South Indian History Congress held at Calicut from February 1st -3rd , 1991.

https://archive.org/details/SatiInAncientTamilLiteratureK.V.RamakrishnaRao

[5] Shadakshari Settar, Inviting death – Indian attitude towards the ritual death, Brill, Vol.28, 1989.

[6] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding In Sangam Age, the paper was presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Karnatak University, Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991  https://archive.org/details/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao

When I presented this paper, there was a discussion in which S. Settar asked many questions about Hero-stones of Tamilagam etc.

The origin, development and importance of Hero-stones in India – special lecture by Dr Poongundran organized by the Indological Research Institute (IRI) (3)

The origin, development and importance of Hero-stones in India – special lecture by Dr Poongundran organized by the Indological Research Institute (IRI) (3)

Dr R. Poongundran gives lecture…

Discussion on the Special lecture: After the lecture, there was a discussion also and many asked questions and he answered and explained nicely. There were some PhD students, who asked specific questions and he replied. Thus, the discussion was live and enjoyable. Generally, in other meetings such free discussion is not allowed, but, here, all could get clarification from the speaker. Definitely, the session set an example for academic proceeding and healthy discussion, as it continued for half-an-hour.

• During which rule, the hero-stones were found maximum?
  • Considering the places (Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri) and other places of Thondaimandalam, it is believed that during the Pallava period, maximum Hero-stones were erected
• Under the category of “Hero” of Hero-stones, who were there?
  • Maximum warriors, soldiers and individuals, rarely King, chieftain or ruler of higher status. Now, interpretation has shifted to “marginalized” and so on.
• Where, the Hero-stones are found maximum?
  • According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones is found in the Indian state of Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest in Karnataka is dated to the 5^th century CE.
• Why the Kumbam / kalasam like object was depicted, what is its significance?
  • It is not Kalasam or Kumbam, as explained above. The one object which requires elucidation is what has been described as a receptacle (Simi, சிமிழ்). The relevance of a Simi = small container, is not clear. It looks more like a pedestal or a representation of what might have been the form of a shrine raised in memory of the dead hero.
• Is there any relation between the script found on the pottery and Hero-stones?
  • As for as the script is concerned, it is the same only and the language is Tamil. The script is called Brahmi, Tamil-Brahmi, Tamili and so on.
• When the transformation of nettuzhuttu to vattezhuttu took place?
  • During 5^th-6^th centuries writing transferred to different media and the script also changing from hard surface to soft surface.
• Whether Hero-stones convey any important message?
  • Hero-stones serve as memorial stones to the warriors, self-sacrifice, defender of villages etc., and hence they were elevated to the stages of God, Goddess or Protecting deity of the villages, group of people etc.

oppo_0

Development of Hero-stones: Whether megalithic burials led to the Nadukal practice has to be studied carefully. There were five stages in the evolution of the megalithic burials, said Rajan. They were –

(1) megalithic cairn circles,

(2) cairn circles with tall menhirs,

(3) tall menhirs with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions on them,

(4) short menhirs, about one or two metres tall, with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, and

(5) the culmination of shortened menhirs into hero-stones with Tamil Vattelluttu inscriptions of the fifth and sixth century CE. In the last and fifth stages, the menhirs were reduced to hero-stones, each with the engraving of the hero who was killed in a cattle raid. Such hero-stones, during the transformation period of Tamil-Brahmi into Tamil Vattelluttu script, belong to the fourth century CE. They have Tamil Vattelluttu inscriptions, and are found in the Chengam area of present-day Tiruvannamalai district, and in Dharmapuri district[1].

oppo_0

The Sangam literary references and details about the Nadukals: The Sangam period (3^rd century BC to 3^rd century CE) literature such as Ahananuru and Purananururefers to the hero stones. They were not plain in character. Generally on the hero stones either at the top or bottom details like the name of the hero, the name of the king and the hero met with his death (his heroic exploits and philanthropic deeds) was engraved. The upper portion of the stone hero’s figure was depicted or appeared. They were mostly planted nearer to the irrigation tank or lake or outside the village. These everlasting stones were worshipped. Tolkappiyam, the earliest extant Tamil grammar, speaks of six stages in the ritual economies associated with the erection of hero stones. They were –

(1) katchi i.e. discovery,

(2) kalkol i.e. invitation,

(3) Nirpatai i.e. Bathing of the stones,

(4) Nadukal i.e. Erection,

(5) Perumpadai i.e. offering of food and

(6) valttu i.e. Blessing.

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Evolution of Hero-stone: The origin of erecting hero stone or hero worship evolved from the Iron age megalithic burial tradition. There were three distinctive stages in the erection of memorial stones.

1) Megalithic monuments were raised as memorials.

2) The iron age graves were raised.

3) Later graves were abandoned menhir with inscription (memorial stone) was raised. The recent discovery from Pulimankombai, Thathapatti, just a few km from Pulimankomabi (on the southern bank of river Vaigai; Dindigul district) are the earliest best example for short menhirs about one or two metres tall, with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Later the Menhirs were reduced to hero-stones. There was a difference between the memorial stone and hero stone. Memorial stones contained funeral remains but the hero stones were erected to show respect over to a death person without his remains. The Pandyas were one of the three crowned monarch of the Sangam age, ruling the southern part of the present Tamil Nadu State (from 6th century to 16th century CE). They followed this tradition as in the Sangam age.

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Nadukal[2]: The given details about Nadukal[3] (literally meaning ‘an erected stone’) show how the practice is evolved into a full-fledged ritual. Initially, the place where the person died is considered as important or sacred and nadukal is erected there[4]. Then, a place is selected for erection[5] followed with other rites –

1. covered with cloth;
2. stone is placed on an elevated platform;
3. washed with good waters;
4. name and fame of the dead are inscribed;
5. worshipped with the offer of flowers, food, and incense; even animals are sacrificed;
6. lamps are lit;

thus the dead is elevated to the status of god and considered as God[6]. The direction was chosen as ‘south’ perhaps coinciding with the direction in which the body fell or found. From this, the concept of fore-fathers living in the southern direction with the status of god might have been developed. In fact, Puram emphasizes that one should perform the duty of offerings to their forefathers, who live in the southern direction, implying the pitrs or departed ancestors[7]. Similarly, a son saves his forefathers of his lineage by his actions. Thus, the offering of panda or rive ball is recognized as an important ritual[8].

oppo_0

Nadukal[9]: For the preparation of Nadukal, six steps have been prescribed:

1. Selection of stone,

2. Chiselling,

3. Immersion in water (for cleaning),

4. Erection (at a place),

5. Engraving and

6. Paying homage (with offerings)[10] .

Surprisingly, very similar rites are followed by Brahmins even today on 10^th day for the dead. The ceremony contains the following steps:

1. Selection stone,
2. Cleaning with water, milk etc.,
3. Seating on darpa (Kusa) grass and writing the name of death on it with the grass symbolically,
4. Pashana Sthapanam (consecration of stone = stone fixing, one at the house and another on the banks of river or where rituals are conducted)
5. Invoking spirit to enter and
6. Offerings with Vastodharana (offering of dress) etc.

Pitā (पिता)	Pitāmaha (पितामह)	Prapitāmaha (प्रपितामह)
Father	Grand father	Great grand father

These practices appear similar and therefore, they have to be studied critically, how such practices could have existed in two different cultures, as now some researchers may try to interpret[11].

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

05-05-2024

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[1] Rajan, K. 2000. South Indian Memorial Stones, Manoo Pathippakam, Thanjavur

[2] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Karanams of the Ancient Tamils, The paper was presented at the first session of Tamilnadu History Congress, held at Madras from September 10 and 11, 1994. Accepted for publication, but not published in the Proceedings, because there was no space (as accepted by the organizers)!

[3] Puram. 221, 260, 263, 264, 265, 329, 335.

  Agam.35, 53, 67, 131, 179, 269, 289, 297, 298, 365.

  Malaipadukadam lines 387-389; Ing. 352 (references about Nadukal).

[4] Puram.260:22-28, 263:7-8, 265:1.

[5] Puram.260:1-4.

[6] As in.Puram, all references about nadukal;

God – Puram. 335:11-12, 265:4-5, 329:1-4; Agam.35:8-11.

[7] Puram.6:4-5, 58:4-5.

[8] Puram.234:2-6, 249:12-14, 360:17-20, 363:10-14.

[9]   K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, A Critical Study of Karanams of the Ancient Tamils and the Samskaras, A paper presented at the Swadeshi Indology Conference – 3 “Tamilnadu – the Land of Dharma” held at from to 2017

[10] Tol.Purattinaiyiyal.Sutra.60. Similar steps are found in the Sangam literature as explained.

[11] Under the Aryan-Dravidian dichotomy and the racial interpretation that is favourable to the Dravidologists, these practices could pose chronological challenges.

Why certain archaeologists should make hue and cry about the findings of skeletons, skulls and bones? Calcutta bone trade (3)

Why certain archaeologists should make hue and cry about the findings of skeletons, skulls and bones? Calcutta bone trade (3)

Urbanization and infrastructure developments destroyed many crematory and burial places: There had / have been crematory and burial places in every village, town and city and, because of urbanization, such areas were / have been slowly converted into residential areas with building houses.  During the 1960-70s, at the time of digging for foundation, many times, Skeletons, skulls and bones were found, but, they were thrown away with “parihara puja” (expiatory, atonement rituals) and houses were built and completed. None wanted to leave the purchased land. Only coins, artefacts and other items found were handed over to the government. None carried on systematic excavation in those places, as they already became “patta” lands. Even during the dams-building many lithic sites and temples were submerged and disappeared. Only some of them / temples were relocated, whereas, most of them forgotten, involving the financial implications.  In fact, the traditional places of Uttarpradesh, Uttarakand, Gujarat and Odhissa, many times, temple structures were found below the existing houses or buildings, when diggings were carried at the adjacent sites. It is not known as to whether the temples were protected or the constructions went on.  To what extent, the ASI has been assertive, effective and taking action as per their Acts and Rules are also not known.

Skeletons, skulls and bones exported from India: It is noted interestingly or ironically that skeletons, skulls and bones exported from India to other countries for medical study purposes[1]. As the British were ruling, they manipulated the legislature to export them to London. “Calcutta bone trade” was s notorious[2] as export of slaves. In the 1850s, Calcutta Medical College processed 900 skeletons a year, mostly for shipment abroad. A century later, a newly independent India dominated the world market for human bones. The 1832 Act came about due to growing societal repugnance at the unscrupulous behavior of anatomists in obtaining bodies for their medical schools. In the 1920s and 1930s, these companies had purchased bones and skeletons from France, Russia, Germany, and India. From 1937 onwards India became the principal supplier and was built on a relationship established between one of the owners of the United Kingdom company and a major distributor in Kolkata. Thus, India had always been the major exporter of the skeletal remains. So it is evident that there were many in and around Calcutta procuring, gathering, packing and sending them to the exporters, so that they were exported out of India.

How the caste system was exploited for “bone collection” and “Calcutta bone trade”: Unfortunately, there had been another serious issue added to the “bone collection” and “Calcutta bone trade.” in other words, the British continued  to exploit the caste system for their colonial benefits. In India, the British utilized and adapted the caste system for the procurement and preparation of bodies. In the dissection rooms of hospitals and colleges, the British relied upon the community members called Doms[3] . Doms, were/are widespread in many areas of India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar, and represent one of the lowest of all castes in India (despised even by Dalits, those considered outside the traditional caste hierarchy that were historically called “Untouchables”). They fulfil tasks that are considered particularly polluting and defiling, like removing animal carcasses and carrying and tending to the human dead in burning or cremation grounds called ghats[4] . However, all these are / were never discussed by the archaeologists or anthropologists in the academic proceedings. In fact, had they wanted, they could have produced hundreds of M.Phils and Ph.Ds on these issues, as many documents (primary sources) are available.

Exports allowed from 1947 to 1985 – questionable: The trade came under scrutiny in the late 1970s and the export from India was banned in 1985 by the Indian government. In 1985, the Chicago Tribune reported that India had exported about 60,000 skulls and skeletons the year before.  In the early 2000s, the buying and selling of human skeletal material were prohibited in many countries, for instance, in the United Kingdom (Human Tissue Act 2004). However, till 1985 how it was going on is surprising and shocking. As they were exported, definitely, the details of the delivery challan, invoice, bill of lading and other documents reveal the exporters and their background. How then, ASI or any other organization allowed such exports?

The Calcutta bone trade 1930-85: The Calcutta bone trade, which operated 1930–85, is estimated to have shipped more than two million skeletons [2,000,000 or 20 lakhs] obtained without consent to countries across the world, including Australia, for teaching anatomy. No-one knows the names of these donors.  In colonial times, British doctors hired thieves to snatch skeletons from Indian cemeteries. Grave-robbing is more common than anyone would expect. Reports surfaced that bone traders weren’t satisfied with what they were finding in graveyards and were murdering people for their skeletons. This trade shipped tens-of-thousands of skeletons across the globe each year (notably without accompanying consents), potentially exceeding 2 million skeletons in total, dwarfing numbers associated with body-snatching that gave rise to the Anatomy Act in Britain[5]. Considering these facts, now a doubt arises about the Bengal famine that occurred in 1943. Whether it was really a famine – natural calamity or man-made – artificial? Anyway, the bone export peaked after the famine as per the documents. The partition of Bengal in 1909 had been communal so that it led to the creation of “East Bengal” later turning to “East Pakistan” in 1947 and “Bangladesh” in 1957.

Skeletal remains of India and archaeological dating and grouping: Archaeologists have tabulated the skeletal remains according to the lithic cultures, regions and their dating as follows:

Time brackets of different cultures with human skeletal findings from India[6]

Culture	Main regions	Time brackets
Middle palaeolithic homo erectus?	Narmada, Madhya Pradesh	0.15 MYA–40,000 YBP
Mesolithic	Gangetic doab	8000 BCE
Harappan culture	North-west part of India, Gujarat	3500–1500 BCE
Neolithic-Chalcolithic	Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kashmir	2000–700 BCE
Later Mesolithic	Gujarat	2000 BCE
Megalithic	Vidharbha, Southern states	1000 BCE–2nd century CE
Early historic, medieval and pre-modern	At various places	2nd century CE–17th century CE

Here, one can notice that the north-east India is not covered in this study. It does not mean that people were not there or skeletal remains not found. Anthropologists, archaeologists, archaeo-anthropologists, anthropo-archaeologists and related experts consciously know the racial-ethnic and linguistic implications in such studies taking genetic data into account. It is well-known that researchers of all categories, one way or the other come to “Aryan-Dravidian” controversies and start interpreting the data of genetics, DNA, osteology or any other modern science accordingly.

Was there any taboo to dealing with skeletal remains?: generally, the Indian public does not like to entertain the presence of skeletal remains at any place. That too, buries ones and excavated by chance or otherwise – not liked by the common people, as they pertained to the dead and inauspicious. Many feel that the burial place should not be disturbed, as it is a sin. As pointed out, since 1960-70, generally, people did not want to build their houses at or near crematoriums or burial grounds. At that time, they were situated nearby rivers or on the river banks, because of the associated last rites to be performed. But, because of urbanization, it could easily be noted that they have been locked inside metros, cities and towns surrounded by posh houses, lodges, hotels and temples also. Whereas, such practices are not allowed in the Indian society either by tradition or mandatory religious custom.  Yet, all these have taken place in Indian history.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-04-2024

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[1] Jones, David Gareth. “Anatomists’ uses of human skeletons: Ethical issues associated with the India bone trade and anonymized archival collections.” Anatomical Sciences Education 16.4 (2023): 610-617.

[2] Stephan, C. N., Caple, J. M., Veprek, A., Sievwright, E., Kippers, V., Moss, S., & Fisk, W. (2017). Complexities and remedies of unknown-provenance osteology. In Commemorations and memorials: exploring the human face of anatomy (pp. 65-95).

[3] Jacob, T. G. History of teaching anatomy in India: from ancient to modern times. Anat. Sci. Educ. 6, 351–358 (2013)

[4] Arnold, D. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Univ. California Press, 1993).

[5] Stephan, Carl N., Jodi M. Caple, Andrew Veprek, Emma Sievwright, Vaughan Kippers, Steve Moss, and Wesley Fisk. “Complexities and remedies of unknown-provenance osteology.” In Commemorations and memorials: exploring the human face of anatomy, pp. 65-95. 2017.

[6] Mushrif-Tripathy, Veena. “Human skeletal studies in India: a review.” Archaeological Human Remains: Global Perspectives (2014): 139-153. A still more elaborate table can be seen in this paper –

Mushrif‐Tripathy, Veena, Kalyan Sekhar Chakraborty, and Sutapa Lahiri. “Where Are They Now? The Human Skeletal Remains from India.” A companion to South Asia in the past (2016): 496-533.