Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – 11-03-2023- Animal remains, Ashmound, ash, slag, Iron waste etc (7)

Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2^nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – 11-03-2023-  Animal remains, Ashmound, ash, slag, Iron waste etc (7)

Mohanty – Manikapatna: an ancient port site in Odisha: Excavation of Manikapatna by D.R. Pradhan yielded the material evidence belonging to an early medieval port having remains of maritime activities. Manikpatna or Manikapatna is an archaeological site in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It has been identified with the medieval port of Chelitalo described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang. The site is located on the sea coast near Brahmagiri which is situated near the left bank of the Bhargavi river, at the northeastern end of the Chilika Lake. Findings indicate trade contacts with many countries. Chinese celadon ware and porcelain have been dated to different centuries, showing prolonged trade. Trade with the Roman Empire is evident from fine greyish-white rouletted pottery, knobbed ware and fragments of the amphora. Other pottery fragments originate from Burma, Siam and Arabian countries. A Sri Lankan coin belonging to the reign of Sahassa Malla has been found dating from the 11th or 12th century CE. The site is named after the nearby village of Manikpatna, which in turn is named after Manika, a milkmaid whom legend says sold yoghurt to Lord Jagannath and Lord Balabhadra when they passed by. The village is home to the Bhabakundalesvara Temple, which has a Shiva Linga made of black chlorite stone as the presiding deity.

Vedachalam – Vattezhutu (read in Tamil): Vattezhuttu and Tamil inscriptions of Varaguna Pandya II: – He was stressing that the first vattezhutu (a syllabic alphabet used for writing Tamil and Malayalam) was used and then during the medieval period, both vattezhutu and Tamil scripts were used, then, mostly, Tamil script was used. Though, he did not tell why such change, modification or transformation took place, he explained several inscriptions of the Pandyas and Cholas.

K. Sridharan – Pattaraiperumpudur excavation: It is situated on the eastern bank of the river Kosathalaiyar and lies on the western side of Tiruvallur, the district headquarter which is about 60 km from Chennai. This place is surrounded by a number of prehistoric sites like Gudiyam, Attirampakkam, Vadamadurai, Neyveli, Parikulam etc. The archaeological mound was found at three places in the village namely anaimedu, nathamedu and irulanthoppu.  In order to examine the potentiality of the archaeological vestiges the excavation was conducted at the place in April 2016. During the course of excavation it has been found that area was accumulating  the rich archaeological vestiges right from prehistoric period to early historical period.  The deposit contain stone tools, different type of potteries, bricks, iron objects, roofing tiles, carnelian beads, shell bangles, terracotta objects, glass beads, copper objects, inscribed sherds (Tamil Bhrami), sherds with graffiti marks, painting potsherds, ivory object, terracotta ring well and other house holding objects in different levels of the excavated trenches. A pragmatic study of the cultural vestiges and the in-situ study of findings gleaned from that the cultural deposit at pattaraipeumbudur can be divided into Stone age period, Iron age period and Early historical period.

Pankaj Goyal- Animal based subsistence strategies at Gottiprolu, a southern Satavahana outpost in Andhra Pradesh’s SPSR Nellore District: Gottiprolu, 2000 years ago, as revealed from archaeological investigations was once apart of the Satavahana Empire which was spread across the modern states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It was inhabited by many small to large settlements, the latter displaying urban characteristics and a rich material culture. These included sites such as Peddabankur, Dhulikatta, Kotilingala, and Veerapuram, etc. Some of these sites were fortified (Shastry 1983).During this period, particularly in its coastal region, major economic activities like craft specialization, Indo Roman trade along with Buddhism had flourished (Shastry 1983). One of the factors attributed for the urbanization in this region was the rich fertile alluvial soil of the Krishna and Godavari river basins, which had helped agriculture to develop. While animals may have also contributed to the early historic economy, theirrole is not clear because of the limited faunal studies carried out for sites of this period. Some of the studied sites are Peddabankur (Krishna Shastry 1983), Nagarjunakonda(Nath 1963; Talukder and Pal 2007), Pochampad (Alur 1979a), Yelleshwaram (Alur1979b) and Veerapuram (Thomas 1984).

An interesting feature of the faunal study revealed is the rich animal diversity in existence around Gottiprolu during the Early Historic period. Currently the site islocated adjacent to a reserve forest zone where many of the represented wild animals can be found even today. The representation of a wide range of animals particularly wild buffalo, wild pig, deer, birds, turtles strongly indicates that the climate during the settlement’s occupation was fairly wet and humid supporting a landscape with water bodies and vegetation. Due to which the region was rich in wild life. The Swarnamukhi River and its tributaries had adequate water to support aquatic animals like fish,turtles, molluscs etc. It is this congenial environment with its rich fauna that may have been one of the reasons for establishing the ancient settlement at Gottiprolu. While itstill needs to be determined whether Gottiprolu had functioned as an agricultural, religious, trading, industrial or a military settlement, the faunal study does strongly indicate that it had hosted a fair sized population sustained by a strong animal-based subsistence.

Observation: Incidentally, this paper has already been published in “Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 8.1: 2020” and they have uploaded in “Researchgate” site also[1]. So How he presents the same paper here is not known[2].

J. Soundararajan and K. V. Ramakrishna Rao – The importance of Ashmound found during the Excavations conducted at Valasai, Gudiyatham, Tamilnadu[3]: The Neolithic culture of South India has been invariably connected with ashmounds and Iron Age with the archaeological evidences found in the parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. the Ancient History and Archaeology department of University of Madras, found ashmound in 2006 and 2021 at the Valasai village. Earlier, ashmound was reported at Appukkallu and Modur by the TN state archaeology department. Whether the Valasai ashmound can be compared with that of Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhrapradesh; people of Tamilnadu had the similar practices of them; the existing hypotheses and theories of ashmounds; and other issues are discussed, as the Valasai ashmound could be that of non-cowdung nature and that is discussed in this paper taking all factors into consideration and conclusion drawn.

location of the site, side view etc., showing the ash mound…..

Valasai, also known as Modikuppam Valasai (78^o51’53”E; 13^o01’47”N) is a small Village/hamlet in Gudiyattam Block, Kallapadi Panchayath in Vellore District of Tamil Nadu State, India.  In a first of its kind, students attached to the Madras University’s Ancient History and Archaeology department have excavated a neolithic ash-mound during their field training at Sendoor Malai near Gudiyatham[4] in 2021. Though Neolithic ash-mounds have earlier been discovered in other parts of south India, including at Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, this is the first time such a mound is excavated in Tamil Nadu. However, ASI in 1980 had already reported that there were evidences found here for the existence of Neolithic people at Valasai site. A thesis submitted in 2006 by A. Kumar, an alumni of our department, had recorded that there was an extensive mound with multi-cultural phases near Sendoormalai in Vellore district.

ashmound with moulds……..

Iron articles found……..

even holes / porous nature of slag / ferrous oxide waste can be noted……….

Valasai has evidences for Iron smelting and manufacture: The excavation resulted in finding of ferrous presence in the form of ash, slag and broken article. Ferrous slags are produced in different stages of the iron making processes resulting in varying physiochemical properties. Additionally, the rate of cooling of the slag material affects its degree of crystallinity further diversifying its range of properties. Thus, the evidences found are as follows:

1. The site yielded the evidence of Iron smelting activity in the form terracotta pipes and broken pieces of furnace with potsherds like Black-and-Red ware.
2. The excavation has yielded an iron slags from Layer 1 at M.VLS 2.
3. Terracotta blow pipe was also found in M.VLS-3 and 5, and it was used in iron smelting furnace to supply air inside it. It indicates the presence of Iron smelting activities.
4. The excavation has yielded an iron object at M.VLS- 3 and 5. The iron object was found in broken state. A broken knife was noticed from M. VLS-5.
5. The presence of iron slags, iron smelting pipes and iron objects indicate people does have the knowledge of iron smelting technology.
6. The excavation at Modikuppam Valasai has exposed a number of antiquities ranging from the period of Neolithic to Iron Age period. The antiquities include lithic objects, terracotta objects, TC beads, burnishing tool, grinding stones, Iron objects etc.

Here, the Valasai ashmound might thus differ with others with the metallic nature of content. Thus, the Iron furnace broken parts, terracotta pipes, Iron slag, broken Iron object etc., prove the Iron smelting activities and the waste, slag and powder / ash found could be related to Iron  (ferrous oxide) conglomerates with sand etc. the 74,000 YBP volcanic ash ad that of 3000-1500 BCE “ashes” have to be contrasted and differentiated.

Conclusion: In view of the above archaeological excavations, investigation and interpretation of excavated artefacts comparing with that of others, the following details are drawn out and submitted as concluding points:

1. Valasai, the Neolithic site has traces of ashmound, but, it is related to Iron Age period and thus, could be that of Iron smelting.
2. “Sendoor malai” could refer to the mound made of red soil with ferrous oxide content. The soil of the town is constituted with gravel clay mixed with sand soft rock. The eastern portion of the town has soft rock and red soil, red loam soil or red ferruginous variety both sandy and loamy. There is an hillock called “Sendukkarai Hill” in this portion.
3. Iron ash, furnace, slag and related items have been recovered to correlate and corroborate such investigation and interpretation.
4. The ceramic industry also vouchsafe the high temperatures handling capacity of the people, furnace and fuel materials, later reduced to ashes.
5. Cow / Cattle dung cake known as “Varatti,” had / has been a common man fuel producing temperatures of high order, depending upon the usage. These cakes were used in the furnaces used for the manufacture of clay articles, ceramics, beads, glass, metallic objects etc. Nowadays,, machines are available for making dung cakes[5].
6. Even today, the red soil is used widely for pottery making, brick manufacture and construction work for its ferrous, ferruginous and binding nature.
7. As elephant presence has been here, whether their dung available in huge quantities could be a source for the “ashmound” can also be studied[6].

Santanu Vaidhya – Socio-economic perspectives of Vidarba Megaliths:.. The finding of new sites has opened a new arena in study of the Early Iron Age. It can be seen as follows: a) The observation of Vaidya (2014) that there are and have to be many more sites with Early Iron Age habitation and also that the habitation and burials form one single cultural entity is supported. Hence, it can be said that there are settlements present in areas rich in resource like alluvium, pasture and iron ore.

b) Malli excavations (Sontakke 2014a) as discussed earlier have brought out some new aspects of the Early Iron Age such as the presence of a different burial architecture, negligible burial goods and also the importance of internal burial architecture more than the interments. Recent explorations have yielded only solitary evidence of menhir from Sasara. Menhirs are not very common in the Nagpur region, except at Nagbhir and Umred. But even the last mentioned two places are near the Wainganga River. Even at Malli and surroundings menhirs are noticed (Sontakke 2014a). Thus it can be said that this burial typology was confined probably to the Wainganga proper and not in the Nagpur region and further west. Also it seems that the burials differed in ideology from the Nagpur region, since at Malli not many burial goods were recovered as in the Nagpur region burials (Sontakke 2014a). Again this suggests the presence of a different burial type like menhir and cist in this region. Sasara and its surroundings therefore make up a promising place for further probing and investigations.

Observation: Here also, it is noted that the same or similar paper has already been published and appearing in the Bulletin of the Deccan college and also internet[7]. He might have presented here with slight changes of the same site and details[8].

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

14-03-2023.

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[1] Deshpande-Mukherjee, A., Goyal, P., Sreelakshmi, T., Rajesh, M., Veeraraghavan, N., Krishna, S., & Vinodh, N. Past Faunal Diversity and Animal Usage Revealed at Gottiprolu, A Southern Satavahana Outpost in SPSR Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh. Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 8.1: 2020.

[2]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359710811_Past_Faunal_Diversity_and_Animal_Usage_Revealed_at_Gottiprolu_A_Southern_Satavahana_Outpost_in_SPSR_Nellore_District_of_Andhra_Pradesh

[3]  K. V. Ramakrishna Rao in December 2022 itself sent two papers one joint paper with J. Soundararajan and another individual, both accepted, CV and detals asked, invited, but suddenly, K. V. Ramakrishna Rao  – name removed, he was invited to attend the conference as “participant,” for the best reasons only known to the organizers. Is it also “Recent advances in South Indian Archaeology” or not – is not known.

[4] Incidentally, the Kudatini ashmound, which sits astride a pass through a north– south spur of the Sandur Hills, was one of the first described by colonial surveyors, resemble “Sendoor malai,” Sendoor hills.

[5] cow dung processing machines such as –

1. Cow dung dewatering machine
2. Cow dung cake machine
3. Cow dung dia making machine
4. Agarbathi making machine –  are available in the market.

[6] Elephant dung produced has been enormous – as an elephant could produce 100 kgs dung per day and more than 40 MTs in a year. Thus, even, if ten elephants herd was there, 400 MTs dung would have been deposited in that area. Had it been disposed off periodically at a place by way of buring with other waste, it coud have also formed part of the “ashmound.”

[7] Vaidya, S., Abbas, R., Sontakke, V., & Willis, M. (2015). Recent Findings on the Early Iron Age in the Bhandara District and Wainganga Basin, Vidarbha. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 75, 85-92.

[8] https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/49933029/Arch-75-07_85-92_Vaidya_etal-libre.pdf?1477646966=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DRECENT_FINDINGS_ON_THE_EARLY_IRON_AGE_IN.pdf&Expires=1678901644&Signature=SxxBHBzZ3vRt9eiwkRgUCXgLH~3YszAdK2WcrSBBU1A5xHHeNRnHxWAt2-cv8oYMqWEYNyQgGPn8nsgFR0AFDEJ1ZfOwRQ~ASf1dTJdd-5oZrcqFeBJJxQmqc5DZdeBItJ6MMeoA47OY9pyx3EjCP-eS1lNa6s2V32VDnHha6RSMPEx7dvKxLQ8pinjO4W~HdyTbDwS2jLzI8pBY7QyS-3CCNJGJm0GgdhXSCtsH9Yo78M9SQoaWceBTx1Uk-iHcoVI~v8Wnu3iPE8aLxN-NbiQbYp6-pmLAfC0E8rjwxhaUUHzOP0eM6o2csWy52Gc3w9EI2k0eZ2SZO6kI96JSkw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

Excavations continue at Valasai, Gudiyatham exposing interesting evidences to prove Neolithic Ashmound to Iron period – awaiting Laboratory results!

Tents arranged for the stay of students near the site.

Many tools, implements etc., used for excavation

Excavations continue at Valasai, Gudiyatham exposing interesting evidences to prove Neolithic Ashmound to Iron period – awaiting Laboratory results!

How tools are used: The equipment of archaeological work is composed of tools adapted for digging and cleaning work, as varied as the amounts of earth that will be removed, as well as the size and the fragility of archaeological discoveries.

1. The tools must respond to the security needs and be adapted to the field, which requires, ideally, shoes with track (to avoid falls), with high sides (to protect the ankle), with nails (to avoid the slides);
2. a helmet and a security vest to be worn by the drivers of heavy machinery who work in the site, and gloves and protectors for hands and knees…
3. With the objective of avoiding extremely hard manual work and to gain time, in France the great volumes of earth that need to be removed before reaching the archaeological levels are generally dug by mechanical shovels and evacuated by trucks.
4. The work of removal of the great structures is made manually using the shovels, picks and wheelbarrows. The meticulous excavation of the smallest structures and the soil levels (called “decapage” in France) requires the use of a trowel, a handpick, brushes and buckets.
5. The delicate findings – the inhumations, the ceramics in situ, etc. – are excavated with the aid very fine tools: small spatulas, dental instruments and brushes.
6. The collection of smaller remains also requires sometimes the use of the sieve or the installation of a flotation station.
7. But if the archaeological excavations, in France and abroad, are developed with the same scientific aspirations, they are rarely conducted with similar technical devices because one does not find in the field all the necessary tools.
8. Now, mechanization is replaced by the labor of the workers with the pick (boron ganti and choto ganti), the shovel are replaced by the hoe (kodhal), the wheelbarrows by several carriers of tagari and bar, a type of balance.
9. For the rest, even if the tools have different names, they are similar and the trowel of the archaeologist, recently imported, is known locally as the koni (literally: triangle).

Cross sectional view of the Asmound / ash embedded stratigraphy discovered in 2006

The terminology used in Archaeological excavations: Like in most of disciplines, the archaeologist uses a specific vocabulary to describe his work. This one, nevertheless, not always is standardized, mostly due to the differences between sites, scientific problems, but also professional traditions.

1. A certain number of these terms is borrowed from other disciplines, especially from geology. Sometimes these terms take a new meaning in an archaeologist lexicon.
2. The term “stratigraphic unit ” (S.U.) allows the archaeologist to individualize each human or natural action in a set of events. Some prefer the term “excavation unit ” (E.U.), others use  “sedimentary anomaly ” (S.A.)…
3. Sedimentary anomaly is also known as false statigraphy , due to natural, geological and man-made disturbance of the earth surface.
4. The archaeologist speaks of a positive or negative S.U., depending if it is a result of addition of matter (construction, filling, deposit) or from the action of subtraction of it (digging, erosion), and sometimes of a surface.
5. The  term level is used frequently when referring to a special layer.
6. It is important overall to isolate the actions, to identify them as significant events, and to determine their temporary sequence. The action to dig a ditch must be distinguished from the one that fills up it and between these two moments there can be a pause of several centuries.
7. The event groups several S.U. that correspond to a coherent space unit. A well represents an event that collects all the S.U. that correspond to the excavation of the pit and its construction, its plastering, its traces of use, its filling after abandonment, its transformation into dump…
8. the term structure is also used sometimes to indicate a set that represents a coherent unit in the space. Several structures can belong to the constitution of a unit, even of a special feature (locus).
9. The archaeologist often reasons on what is often not visible today; a ghost, in archaeology, is an element that does not exist anymore but than remains in traceable form.

The Iron ash, slag etc and high temperatures handled: Coming to Valasi site, it is claimed that ferrous remnants have been found. About the Iron ash, articles etc., recovered has already been pointed out and they show that the pastoral activities going on in these areas. The iron implements were required for digging, ploughing, harvesting and other activities. Thus, the ashmound, iron presence and other ceramic ware prove the inter-related high temperature handling of ceramic and metallurgical skills of the people settled here.

The samples found, have to be sent to laboratories for getting datings, as now by comparing the existing and established practices, the relative datings have been prescribed.

Jeyamkonda Soleswaram temple is situated near Valasai Village

LHS of the temple

RHS of the temple

Broken sculptures found

Brahma sculpture found

Rajaraja sculpture

Chola inscriptions found on the outer wall of the temple RHS

Chola inscriptions found on the outer wall of the temple RHS, bottom portion

Jeyamkonda Soleswaram is mentioned in the bottom portion of the inscription

LHS of the temple – another view

Backside view of the temple

View from the corner of the temple outside

Venkatesan briefed about the temple and temple-architecture

Jeyamkonda Soleswarr, Lingam-Mulavar inside

The Jeyamkondacholeswaram Temple nearby: The Jeyamkondacholeswaram has been very near with hero-stones and other broken sculpture found in and around, Modikuppam areas prove the well-settled activities of the people till 10^th-11^th centuries. As Rajaraja chola and Rajendra had passed through these areas to Karnataka, the temple fund here has been reasonable. One of the Chola inscriptions states that Jeyasimha, the ruler of Kalyani, turned his back at Masagi [Maski] and hid himself and Rajendra assumed the title Jeyamkonda Chola, as he defeated Jeyasimha. In fact, it has been a good example of Salvage archaeology, as it has been reconstructed with the sculptures, materials available there.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

24-02-2021

Excavations continue at Valasai, Gudiyatham exposing interesting evidences to prove Neolithic Ashmound to Iron period

Excavations continue at Valasai, Gudiyatham exposing interesting evidences to prove Neolithic Ashmound to Iron period

The University bus ready for the students to visit the Valasai site

Archaeological field-training to the students: The first year students of  M.A., Ancient History and Archaeology of  the University of Madras were taken to Chenthur Malai, Valasai Village – 632601, near Modikuppam, Gudiyatham Taluk, Vellore District, for field-training in excavation. On 20-02-2021, morning, the University bus started from the University campus and proceeded to Gudiyatham via Vellore.

The students sitting inside the bus

In between, we had breakfast at a hotel and proceeded.

Valasai village, location and significance: Valasai is surrounded by K.V. Kuppam Block towards East, Anaicut Block towards South, Bangarupalem Block towards North , Yadamari Block towards North.  That is it is near to Karnataka and Andhra borders and therefore, the ashmound found here is reasonable, plausible and conforming the pattern and life-style of the Neolithic cultural sequences with iron technology. In 1980, 2006 and 2012, earlier excavations were carried on and the presence of Neolithic culture was proven and I have given those details in my earlier blog[1].

Valasai, Sendoormalai location

The students briefed about: The students were headed by Prof J. Soundararajan, HOD-In-Charge, P. Venkatesan, ASI retd.officer,  Jinu Koshi, the site-guide for excavation and others. We reached the site by 1.00 pm. The Valasai village has been calm and the people have engaged in agriculture.

Students getting down at the Valasai village

Students getting down at the Valasai village and looking at…..

Students getting down at the Valasai village…..HOD looking at

HOD gives instructions

Students getting down at the Valasai village and moving to the house, where students staying

Students just getting refreshed after 5 hours travelling from Chennai

The house, the kitchen and the place where the students have been staying…..

After having lunch, we proceeded to the ashmound area. The students were briefed about the “ashmound,” is significance and fin at the Valasai village.

Under this Banyan tree, the students had lunch.

The students started moving towards the ashmound cut portion by the side of Sendoormalai

The students started moving towards the ashmound cut portion by the side of Sendoormalai and reaching there

Slowly settling down to listen to briefing

P. Venkatesan started briefing as to how Sri Kumar discovered in 2006.

The ashmound cut portion can be seen at the backside

A thesis submitted in 2006 by Kumar, an alumni of our department, had said there was an extensive mound with multi-cultural phases near Sendoormalai in Vellore district.

The ash embedded can be seen in the cut portion

The ashmound etc: The hillside was cut to prevent the wild animals to enter the agricultural land and spoil and also affect the villagers with their sudden visits. Recently, elephants in group entered the village and damaged the banana trees and crop.

The above photo shows the ashmound presence in the straigraphical layers. The photo below shows the ashmound with the embedded pottery pieces in situ.

Jinu Koshi claimed,  “…….that the Ashmounds were formed by accumulation of burned dung in the pastoral settlements during the neolithic period. The earliest date and occurrence of these ashmounds dates back to 2,500BCE”, adding, “The site was visited by Arcahelogical survey of India in 2012 to understand the cultural sequences and importance of the site. Later in their study it was confirmed the site was occupied since neolithic period. Based on the thesis report and the study conducted by ASI, we decided to excavate the site…. The main aim of this excavation was to understand the antiquity and culture of ancient Valasai. Another purpose is to find out the extension of the settlement and its pattern. A systematic archaeological excavation of this mound will unfold the cultural importance and history of this region. Besides, the findings of the excavation would also help in reconstructing the history of south India.”

In Karnataka, the ashmounds are typically called as “Budhihal” (place of ash), “Budditippa” (mound of ash), “Budigunta” (pit of ash), “Budikanama” (abode of ash) etc., thus clearly pointing to ash.

The students engaged in excavation and waiting for the HOD instructions to get ready, as could be noted from the photograph.

How the area was marked for excavation was divided into squares and digging started for prospective findings. As the area has already proven for the archaeological potential, it has been chosen for field-study and excavation-training.

What is Step-trench excavation?: Here, Step-trench excavation method is adopted incorporating both vertical and horizontal excavations. Moreover, the mound contains soil, mud and earth are fund to be loosely packed.

In deep excavations the side of the trenches may be stepped at intervals in order to maintain the stability of the trench walls and reduce the risk of collapse. An inevitable consequence is that an excavation that starts relatively large will provide only a limited view of the deepest levels.

A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide (as opposed to a wider gully, or ditch), and narrow compared with its length (as opposed to a simple hole).

The different types of tools used in an excavation:  The different tools used in the excavations have been –

Spade Pick axe Shovel Rammer Crow bar Wedge

Spading fork Hoe Rake Basket Iron pan Brushes

Different tools used for excavation

The pottery, and other materials embedded can be seen on the LHS portion insitu (not yet excavated) and the RHS portion shows the just excavated position of the stratigraphy.

Interestingly, the students could find “Ash mound” with the stratigraphical layers embedded with broken pottery and skeleton pieces of the animals. The mound excavated evidently contains loose soil with the embedded materials. They could also note the unearthed potsherds and stone tools dating back to Neolithic, iron age and early historic periods, implying that the area had been perhaps, continuously engaged with human activities.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

23-02-2021

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[1]  K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!, February 11, 2021.

Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!

Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!

Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!

Valasai village – location: Valasai is a small Village/hamlet in Gudiyattam Block in Vellore District of Tamil Nadu State, India. It comes under Kallapadi Panchayath. It is located 30 KM towards west from District head quarters Vellore. 9 km from Gudiyattam. 170 km from State capital Chennai. Valasai Pin code is 632601 and postal head office is Dharanampet. Valasai is surrounded by K.V. Kuppam Block towards East, Anaicut Block towards South, Bangarupalem Block towards North, Yadamari Block towards North. Pallikonda, Pernampattu, Vellore, Chittoor are the nearby Cities to Valasai. Like Hosur, this area have been associated with the linguistic affinity of the Telugu and Kannada speaking people and their culture.

1980, 2006, 2012 excavations continued: In a first of its kind, students attached to the Madras University’s Ancient History and Archaeology department have excavated a neolithic ash-mound during their field training at Sendoor Malai near Gudiyatham[1]. Though neolithic ash-mounds have earlier been discovered in other parts of south India, including at Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, this is the first time such a mound is excavated in Tamil Nadu[2]. However, ASI in 1980 had already reported that there were evidences found here for the existence of Neolithic people at Valasai site[3]. Thus, the University group had chosen the place for further excavations[4]. Headed by department head J Soundhararajan, 21 post graduate final year students carried out the excavation at Valasai village, situated about 12km from Gudiyatham town, since February 3, 2020[5]. “A thesis submitted in 2006 by Kumar, an alumni of our department, had said there was an extensive mound with multi-cultural phases near Sendoormalai in Vellore district,” said Jinu Koshy excavation in charge, adding, “The site was visited by archaeological survey of India in 2012 to understand the cultural sequences and importance of the site. Later in their study it was confirmed the site was occupied since Neolithic period[6]. Based on the thesis report and the study conducted by ASI, we decided to excavate the site.” In addition, they also unearthed potsherds and stone tools dating back to Neolithic, iron age and early historic periods.

Iron Age evidences found: “The main aim of this excavation was to understand the antiquity and culture of ancient Valasai. Another purpose is to find out the extension of the settlement and its pattern. A systematic archaeological excavation of this mound will unfold the cultural importance and history of this region. Besides, the findings of the excavation would also help in reconstructing the history of south India,” Koshy said[7]. The excavation will be completed in next couple of days. ash mounds were formed by accumulation of burned dung in the pastoral settlements during the Neolithic period[8]. The earliest date and occurrence of these ash-mounds dates back to 2,500BCE. Though, no furnace was found, few funnel type articles found that are related to iron smelting. Had such activities been dominant and regular feature, then, the ash might contain ferrous oxides content also.

Ashmound, dung burning, cattle raiding, and related issues: Allchin and Allchin related[9] the ash mounds found in Karnataka to periodical cattle-dung burning to mark certain festivals, celebrations and rites.  Allchin opined that though over 200 specimens of cattle bones were identified, it is not clear whether this indicates the presence of two separate breeds, one milch variety and the other used for transport and ploughing purposes. The cattle may be identified as at Piklihalli and Maski as normal Bos Indicus. The samples of charcoal and bone show that they belong to a period of 4120 YBP ± 150 or 2160 ± 150 BCE. He has reported that cattle bone were available in ash-mounds also. He mentions about the driving of cattle through bone fires by Mahadev kolis of Bombay, Gonds and Ahirs of Mandla and Gollas of Andhrapradesh. He establishes that the ash mounds mark the sites of Neolithic cattle-pens and that periodically accumulated dung in the pens was burnt. The burnings were the result of the some sort of purposeful activity. Every year at the time of the seasonal migrations, a bone fire ceremony took place in the Neolithic pens.  However, such practices were there in the Tamizhagam has not yet been proved with excavations.

Whether the people of Tamilnadu had the similar practices of Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhra?: Probably, the ceremony involved the cattle being driven through a moderate fire of dung, lighted in the centre of the pen. It would be regarded as auspicious, particularly when the pen was in deed of reconstruction, if the resulting fire got out of control and caught the whole mass of dung. The bones which recovered were almost all from the living areas and they were mostly cut up as if for purposes of food, just as at other permanent Neolithic settlement. Though he quoted about the cattle riding references from Tolkappyam, Pattuppattu and Ettuttogai, he did not think in the lines of tradition of the ancient Tamil culture[10]. Tamil tradition revolved around the valorous capture of cattle during and after battles[11]. M. D. Sampath pointed out that such cattle skirmishes were recorded in the 8th – 10th CE inscriptions of Banas, Gangas, Vaidumabas and Nolambas. This coincides with the “Neolithic cattle keepers” of South India. Peter Johnsen[12] also related to “…..agro-pastoral Landscape, Sites and settlements marked by ash mounds were located in similar landscape elements ecologically favorable to pastoralism and small-scale agriculture……. A close examination of ash mound deposits illustrates the cyclical and repetitive rhythm of activities involved in their construction”.

The practice of driving cattle through fire in Karnataka

“The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption”

74,000 YBP – “The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption” and ash mound problem: Now, one group of researchers claim that 74,000 years ago, one volcanic eruption occurred in Indonesia named as “The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption” and they associate it with the archaeological assemblages at Jwalapuram, in the Jurreru River valley of southern India[13]. Here, they have made a lot of assumptions and presumptions as they note, “may suggest, this interpretation would be” and so on. So far the ash found at the different sites could be dated to 74,000 YBP or otherwise is not known. The Neolithic cattle keepers and cattle raiders and their associated ash and ashmounds have been dated based on the stratiographical evidences, that have been dated.  As excavations have been going on, new evidences to be unearthed might unravel archaeological puzzles and ash mound issue get resolved and settled down.

“The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption”

Stubble burning

Ash mound hypotheses and theories summarized: The question of ash mound has been under under discussion and debate for more than 185 years. Starting with the European Indologists to present excavators have floated many hypotheses and theories that are summarized here, for academic interest:

1. Neolithic ash mounds (sometimes termed as cinder mounds) are man-made landscape features found in some parts of southern India (chiefly around Bellary) that have been dated to the Neolithic period (3000 to 1200 BCE).  Then, excavaters started locating at other places also.
2. They have been a puzzle for long and have been the subject of many conjectures and scientific studies. They are believed to be of ritual significance and produced by early pastoral and agricultural communities by the burning of wood, dung and animal matter. Hundreds of ashmound sites have been identified and many have a low perimeter embankment and some have holes that may have held posts.
3. These ashmounds were traditionally given mythological explanations as the burnt remains of rakshasas described in epics like the Mahabharata.  Then, the dating of them around 3100 BCE might gather strength. However, the Sangam literature cattke raiding ash could be dated to c.580 BCE to 100 CE.
4. A scientific explanation was first attempted by T. J. Newbold who sent notes on Būdigunta, one of the largest such mounds, to James Prinsep who published it in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1836. Newbold suggested that these were volcanic scoriae as the masses had a glassy surface and gave a hollow sound when struck. He was initially of the opinion that it appeared as if of volcanic origin although lacking any other evidence for it. He also pointed out that furnaces around the country did not produce such scoriae or slag. Newbold also pointed to Buchanan Hamilton’s notes on the Rajmahal hills where he had described calcareous remains that the locals referred to as asurhar or giant’s bones.
5. Cavelly Venkata Lachmia (one of Colin Mackenzie’s fellow researchers and president of the Madras Hindu Literary Society) wrote to Newbold that he had gathered theories these were remains of religious sacrifices made in the past or from funerals of past battles. Lachmia also pointed out that he had seen many other places around Mysore and many of these other places like Budihal and Buditippa had the prefix būdi referring to “ash”. Budigunta near Bellary was said to be the largest and recorded as being 46 feet in height and 420 feet in circumference. Budigunta literally points to a huge pit, trench or cavity with ashes.
6. Robert Sewell conjectured that the region was once densely forested and considered several possible explanations including furnaces. He also had the material examined and it was declared that it could not have come from furnaces or brick kilns. The burning of animal matter was considered as one possible source. He also pointed out that these could have been the result of large pyres where the wives of kings committed sati. Then, the Satikal and Heroine stones erected could be dated to Iran age to the medieval periods.
7. Robert Bruce Foote examined Budikanama in 1872 and suggested that these mounds were produced by burning dung and suggested a similarity to zaribas in Africa. Around the same time two amateur archaeologists dug a mound in Kupgal and found bones, pottery, stone axes and other artefacts.
8. Of course, the periodical burning of left out crop, straw[14] etc., had been a regular feature of the Indian farmers since time immemorial or at least from c.5,000 BCE. Also known as Stubble burning, has the practice of intentionally setting fire to the straw stubble that remains after grains, such as rice and wheat, have been harvested. The technique was widespread until the 1990s, when governments increasingly restricted its use, citing reason for pollution.
9. Allchin in 1963 made an analysis of all the theories and pointed out that rainfall was higher in the region during the Neolithic and that these may been forested regions which were burnt down for livestock.
10. Archaeological studies have continued into recent times. Some of the plant remains have been identified and millet cultivation may have been important. Two staple millets Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria verticillata which are not common in modern cultivation were found in several sites while the commonest legumes were Vigna radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum.
11. The animal remains are mainly of cattle, buffalo and pig (whether wild or domesticated, is not easy to determine). These evidences, thus, do not point to any animal sacrifice, non-vegetarian food cooking and eating and so on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

11-02-2021

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[1] Times of India, Neolithic ash-mound found in Tamil Nadu for first time, Karal Marx | TNN | Updated: Feb 22, 2020, 09:39 .

[2] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/neolithic-ash-mound-found-in-tamil-nadu-for-first-time/articleshow/74251975.cms

[3] தமிழ்.இந்து, சென்னை பல்கலைக்கழக மாணவர்கள் அகழாய்வில் வேலூர் மாவட்டத்தில் புதிய கற்கால சாம்பல் மேடு கண்டுபிடிப்பு: தமிழகத்தில் முதல்முறையாக கண்டறிந்துள்ளதாக தகவல், Published : 22 Feb 2020 07:40 AM

Last Updated : 22 Feb 2020 07:41 AM.

[4] https://www.hindutamil.in/news/tamilnadu/540750-excavating-3.html

[5] The Hindu, Students from University of Madras uncover neolithic site in Valasai, Staff reporter, Vellore, February 21, 2020 01:08 IST; Updated February 21, 2020 01:08 IST

[6] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/students-from-university-of-madras-uncover-neolithic-site-in-valasai/article30874743.ece

[7] தினகரன், குடியாத்தம் அருகே வலசை கிராம மலைப்பகுதியில் கீழடியை விட பழமையான புதிய கற்கால தொல்பொருள் மையம்: சென்னை பல்கலைக்கழக மாணவர்கள் கண்டுபிடிப்பு,

2020-02-20@ 13:00:33.

[8] https://www.dinakaran.com/News_Detail.asp?Nid=565510

[9] Allchin, F.R. Neolithic Cattle Keepers of South India: a Study of the Deccan Ashmounds. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. London, 1963.

[10] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding in Sangam Age, paper presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991.

[11] https://ia800901.us.archive.org/24/items/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao/Cattle raiding in Sangam Age- K. V. Ramakrishna Rao.pdf

[12] Johansen, Peter G. Landscape, monumental architecture, and ritual: a reconsideration of the South Indian ashmounds., Journal of anthropological archaeology 23.3 (2004): 309-330.

[13] Petraglia, Michael, et al. Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the Indian subcontinent before and after the Toba super-eruption, science 317.5834 (2007): 114-116, with supporting material Published 6 July, Science 317, 114 (2007) DOI: 10.1126/science.1141564.

[14] Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. It makes up about half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat.