National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28th and 29th 2024 (3).

National seminar on “Minor Deities in Indian Art,” held at the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research, Chennai on March 28^th and 29^th 2024 (3).

28-03-2024 (Thursday): As I was expecting some photographs, I could not include them in the earlier postings and now included here. The paper, “The precept, concept and evolution of “minor deities” in India,” was presented first on the day with PPT. As only 15 minutes were given, it was wound up and completed. It covered the theme of the seminar, and it concluded with the following note:

Conclusion: In the Indian context, the question of “minor deities” covers thousands of years with many changes, modifications and incorporation. Thus, their representation in the art differs from time to time. Their position today as appearing in situ, at remote places, in the museums, temples functioning and deserted, inside and outside the temples and momentary worship for the occasion and all other exigencies also cannot decide the finality of the status of “minor deities”. In the modern context, to what extent, the syncretization, inculturation and inter-religious dialogue activities can be accepted has to be analyzed. They have to be two-sided and cannot be carried on in one way.

Only the believers of Gods and Goddesses have to be acceptable enough to accommodate all gods and goddesses, as they live in a secular state, if not a secular society. “If believers of Gods abuse Gods, seekers of Gods destroy Gods, faithful followers of one religion question the faith of others and, against all moral and ethical codes and universal principles, conduct pseudo-spiritual and psychological-religious warfare against another religion, then these activities are not “inculturation” but “outculturation”, as religion and culture are inseparable for Hindus[1].

“Theocentric and theocratic eclectics are as dangerous as nuclear, chemical and other warheads. The concept of “My God is your God, but your God is No God” does not foster understanding, co-operation and goodwill. The concept should be changed to “Your God is my God and my God is your God” and accepted by all religions…This is the only way for humanity today. Super God Rivalry, religious superiority, racial / arrogant theology, theocratic world domination and neo-spiritual globalism cannot make “believers” live in peaceful co-existence with others”[2].

In one way, the concept of “minor deities” creates an inferiority complex among the believers, as they have to accept the existence of “major deities.” However,  when kuladevata worship comes, all have to go there to remote places without any discrimination. Thus, such deities continue forever, as long as the believers are there. Only the families should remember their kula-devatas.

29-03-2024 4 to 5 pm: Technical Session – VI was held at the Gallery, parallel and chaired by  Dr. J. Soundararajan, Associate Professor & Head i/c Dept. of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras and the following papers were presented:

Kandasami temple

The 27 sculptures there…

Sculptures of Vethalas

1. Mrs. Geetha C[3] – “Vedhalas Worship in Cheyyur” – Cheyyur Kandaswamy temple is one of the Least Known temples of Tamilnadu. Cheyyur is a place that is located off the East Coast Road about 80 km from Chennai and the main deity of this temple is Lord Muruga who is worshipped as Kandaswamy. The Kandaswamy temple is an ancient temple that was built during the Chola period and it has no Gopuram at the entrance. The temple faces the South and the main deity faces the East. The main Lord of the temple is Sri Kandaswamy with his wives Valli and Devayanai.

There are 27 Vedalams (Bethals) on the inner side of the compound wall of the temple.[4]. These 27 Vedalams are found with their hands lifted up representing the 27 Birth Stars or Nakshatras worshipping Lord Muruga. These 27 Vedalams that are found here are believed to be the 27 Boodaganas who helped Lord Muruga in fighting the Demon Soorapadman. These 27 Vedalams obey the instructions of Lord Bhairava and so you can see the separate deity of Bhairava alongside the Vedalams. The day of Ashtami, that falls after the Full Moon is called ‘Theipirai Ashtami’. This day is considered to be more auspicious for Bhairava. On this day, the devotees worship the Vedalam that represents their Birth star. On the day of Theipirai Ashtami, the Vedala pooja usually starts with Vinayaka Sankalpa, followed by special Archanai for the Vedalams with Red Arali (Nerium) flower. Then it will be followed by Abishekam and Special Archanai for Bhairava with 8 different types of flowers.

Uma presenting paper on Kubera..

Uma presenting paper – audience………

Uma presenting paper – audience- another view

• Mrs. C. Uma[5] – “Kubera – The Lord of Wealth and his influences in Indian Society” – Kubera – कुबेर, also known as Kuvera, Kuber and Kuberan, is the god of wealth, and the god-king of the semi-divine yakshas in Hinduism. He is regarded as the regent of the north (Dikpala), and a protector of the world (Lokapala). His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species, and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and carrying a money-pot and a club. Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic-era texts, Kubera acquired the status of a deva (god) only in the Puranas and the Hindu epics. The scriptures describe that Kubera once ruled Lanka, but was overthrown by his half-brother Ravana, later settling in the city of Alaka in the Himalayas. Descriptions of the “glory” and “splendour” of Kubera’s city are found in many scriptures. Kubera has also been assimilated into the Buddhist and Jain pantheons. In Buddhism, he is known as Vaisravana, the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated with Pañcika, while in Jainism, he is known as Sarvanubhuti.

• K. Bakialakshmi[6] – Jyestha (Thavvai) – Jyestha or Jyeshtha = ज्येष्ठा, Jyeṣṭhā, “the eldest” or “the elder”) is the Hindu goddess of adversity and misfortune. She is regarded as the elder sister and antithesis of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and auspiciousness. She is commonly referred to as Moodevi in South India. Jyestha is associated with inauspicious places and sinners. She is also associated with sloth, poverty, sorrow, ugliness, and often depicted with the crow. She is sometimes identified with Alakshmi, another goddess of misfortune. Her worship was prescribed for women, who invoked her to keep her away from their homes. Jyestha appears in the Hindu tradition as early as 300 BCE. Her veneration was at its peak in South India in the 7th-8th century CE. By the 10th century, her popularity had waned, pushing her into oblivion. Today, numerous ancient images of Jyestha still exist, though she is seldom worshipped. She tried to equate Jyesta with Thavvai (Muthevi, Muthadevi etc) with sculptures of Tamilnadu. Nowadays, learned bloggers have been blogging on different subjects in detail and they can be converted into a book. For example, about this subject, a seven-part blog is available with all information, photos and other details in Tamil[7].

Tavvai sculpture found in Tamilnadu abandoned at several places……

• Ms. S. Nithya[8] –  “Iconography of Vārāhi” – Varahi = वाराही, is one of the Matrikas, a group of seven mother goddesses in the Hindu religion. Bearing the head of a sow, Varahi is the shakti (feminine energy) of Varaha, the boar avatar of the god Vishnu. In Nepal, she is called Barahi. In Rajasthan and Gujarat, she is venerated as Dandini. Varahi is more commonly venerated in the sect of the Goddess-oriented Shaktism, but also in Shaivism (devotees of Shiva) and Vaishnavism (devotees of Vishnu). She is usually worshipped at night, using secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices. The Buddhist goddesses Vajravārāhī and Marichi have their origins in the Hindu goddess Varahi. She tried compare the sculptures, but could not differentiate among the Jain, Buddhist, Hindu and other splinter tantric groups.

Varahi sculpture……..

When many research materials are available in the public domain research has to be new, different and appropriate: If any person, serious researcher, professor or an expert of the discipline attending conferences, seminars, congress or workshop continuously, he / she could find out that how papers are repeated with the material that is already available. The paper presenters, papers who prepares or researcher doing studies on any subject could also find such materials are available already in the public domain. After the advent of internet and the digitization of papers and books, anyone can easily access them. So also others, thus, the source, authenticity and veracity can be verified very easily. Nowadays, the plagiarism software points out, and it has become a tedious process of revising the PhD thesis again and again. The flow, way of expression and writing language also play important role, where the researcher has to maintain his / her individuality.  Therefore, the paper presenters should be judicious enough to take sources, use them properly and come out with new findings or at least new interpretation.

Research should be judicious and independent without bias: Research cannot be putting the “result” first and then finding the source or the supporting materials. Such researcher always tempts to take the material that is favourable and reject or ignore that is not required or against his “result.” The researcher has to follow the rule of “audi alterum partem” (to hear / listen the other side). Thus, a well-seasoned, unbiased and balanced researcher would go into all sources and learn from them. Suppose, if his hypothesis is wrong, then, definitely, he has to change the topic. How Newton discovered the Law of Gravitation, just by looking at the falling apples? Were apples flying in the sky instead of falling on the ground before? No, not at all. Therefore, thinking new is very much essential for a researcher, that too, different from others.

Academically conducted seminar: CPRIIR has self-contained expertise for conducting seminars, conferences and congresses also for many years. I have been attending for the last 30 years. The Director and the staff have been well-trained and they conducted the seminar academically giving an opportunity to the paper presenters. They have been meticulous in carrying out the programme very systematically. I had a feeling, as if I was there on Saturday also!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

30-03-2024.

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[1] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Pollution of Hinduism, a letter appeared in Indian Express, March 28, 1989.

Collins, Paul. “The Praxis of Inculturation for Mission: Roberto de Nobili’s Example and Legacy.” Ecclesiology 3.3 (2007): 323-342.

[2]Sita Ram Goel, Catholic Ashrams, (Letter published in Indian Express March 28, 1989), Voice of India, New Delhi, 1994, p.161. Also, see here: http://voiceofdharma.com/books/ca/ch14.htm

[3] Abstracts, sl.no. 15; p.36.

[4]  Cheyyur Kandaswamy Temple – An Unique Temple With 27 Birth Star Vedalams – https://gosthala.com/cheyyur-kandaswamy-temple-a-temple-with-27-birth-star-vedalams/

[5] Abstracts, sl.no. 33; p.53.

[6] Abstracts, sl.no. 13; p.27.

[7] Vedaprakash, Muthevi, Muthadevi, Tavvai, Mundadevi etc., September 2018;

1. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/11/mudhevi-claiming-as-tamil-goddess-with-race-racial-and-racist-theories/
2. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/11/lakshmi-alakshmi-interpreted-by-dravidian-writers-without-any-basis-mudevi/
3. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-tamil-experts-write-without-caring-for-historical-evidences-and-chronology/
4. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-caught-in-aryan-dravidian-race-interpretation-without-historical-evidence/
5. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/tamil-writers-do-propaganda-without-any-historical-evidences-delving-upon-aryan-dravidian-myths/
6. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/vamacharya-amorous-sculpture-and-biased-research-mislead/
7. https://indianhistoriography.wordpress.com/2018/09/12/mudevi-muttadevi-thavvai-jyestha-devi-dravidian-witers-confusing-and-misleading-without-historical-evidences/

[8] Abstracts, sl.no. 19; p.35.

Bakhshali manuscript and Ramanujam: Mathematical manuscripts from Bodleian Library of Oxford to Cambridge!

Bakhshali manuscript and Ramanujam: Mathematical manuscripts from Bodleian Library of Oxford to Cambridge!

Hard work and esoteric wisdom: Srinivasa Ramanujan claimed that he got such amazing mathematical wisdom from “Namagiri Devi,”[1] just like Kalidasa getting knowledge from Kali. According to Ramanujan, she appeared to him in visions, proposing mathematical formulas and he would have taken down. One such event was described by him as follows:

“While asleep, I had an unusual experience. There was a red screen formed by flowing blood, as it were. I was observing it. Suddenly a hand began to write on the screen. I became all attention. That hand wrote a number of elliptic integrals. They stuck to my mind. As soon as I woke up, I committed them to writing“.

 Or it could be taken down in this way also – as he always used to think about such theorems, formulae etc., a sudden spark would have helped him to get the result. Of course, for such intuition, a divine blessing is required. Furthermore, Ramanujan’s mother received permission from Namagiri Thayar for Ramanujan to go to England in a dream. Ramanujam like any other devout Hindu student would have always attributed his knowledge, timely recollection at the time of examination, thereby writing examinations well, getting high marks, etc., only to his favourite God or Goddess. However, his hard work plays a key role always. Thus, definitely, their knowledge was tremendous, stupendous and great only. Such mathematical knowledge was preserved in India historically. Actually, it was not known how many pages the manuscript bound contained, how many recovered, left at the site itself, damaged and cured for research, and kept at the Bodleian library now. Thus, the oldest mathematical manuscript is now known as “Bakhshali manuscript”  contained the Indian mathematical past historically.

Bakhshali manuscript – the notebook/workbook of an Ancient Indian Student: The “Bakhshali manuscript” is nothing but, a notebook or workbook of an ancient Indian student containing many pages, but, only 70 were reportedly recovered in a mutilated condition found between stones, when a peasant living enclosure was dug. In May 1881, near a village called Bakhshali, lying in the Yusufzai district of the Peshawer division, at the extreme Northwestern frontier of India. About its nature also, different versions are available.

The letter dated 5th of July 1881, from the Assistant Commissioner of  Mardan states[2], “According to the finder’s statement the greater part of the manuscript had been destroyed in taking it up from the place where it lay between stones. The remains, when brought to me, were like dry tinder, and there may be about fifty pages left some of which would be certainly legible to anyone who knew the characters. The letters on some of the pages are very clear and look like some kind of Prakrit, but it is most difficult to separate the pages without injuring them. I had intended to forward the manuscript to the Lahore Museum in the hope that it might be sent on thence to some scholar, but I was unable to have a proper tin box made for it before I left Mardan. I will see to this on my return from leave. The papyrus will require very tender manipulation. The result will be interesting, if it enables us to judge the age of the ruins where the manuscript was found.”

Rudolf Hoernle noted, “Unfortunately, probably through the careless handling of the finder, it is now in an excessively mutilated condition, both with regard to the size and the number of the leaves. Their present size, as you observe (see Plate I), is about 6 by 3 ½ inches; their original size, however, must have been about 7 by 8 ¼ inches. This might have been presumed from the well-known fact that the old birch-bark manuscripts were always written on leaves of a squarish size. But I was enabled to determine the point by a curious fact.”

Its size varies from 13×7 to 18×21 cms size. In other words, the sizes of the notebook pages were thus equivalent to A4 to a bigger size. Professor Buhler, who had read of the discovery in the Bombay Gazette communicated the announcement to Professor Weber, who brought it to the notice of the fifth International Congress of Orientalists then assembled in Berlin. In Buhler’s letter to Weber it was stated that the manuscript had been found, “..carefully enclosed in a stone chamber……,” however, the 70 leaves recovered showed that they were damaged severely, while removing. As noted, the “Bakshali manuscript” was nothing but, a student mathematical book cum workbook containing many pages. It has many interesting problems, but, difficult to solve. The manuscript is written in Sharada character of a rather ancient type, in Sanskrit and on the leaves of birch-bark which from age have become dry like tinder and extremely fragile[3].

The tradition of Birch-bark manuscripts of North India spreading from Central Asia to China: The Birch-bark manuscripts are documents written on pieces of the inner layer of birch bark (of tree), which was commonly used for writing in ancient India. The evidence of birch bark for writing goes back many centuries and in various cultures. The oldest dated birch bark manuscripts are numerous Gandhāran Buddhist texts from approximately the 1^st century BCE to CE, which are believed to have created in Gandhara part of Bharat (now Afghanistan), likely by the Dharmaguptaka sect of Buddhists. That the Buddhism was existed till the medieval period above Bharat from Central Asia to China and of course down to South East Asia is well known. In other words, just like the tradition of “Talapatra” of south India, the north Indians used “Bhiojpatra.” Moreover, the writing was there, during the first centuries with an established educational system. As these manuscripts withstood time, there could have been more, but, unless, the Europeans reveal, Indian researchers are not in a position to proceed further. Now coming to numbers and zero, as this Bakshali manuscript contained zeros, it would have been more interesting, had the manuscript was shown to Ramanujam by his British friends of the Cambridge.

The number “0”, decimal numbers etc: According to the westerners / the European experts, the origin of the symbol zero has long been one of the world’s greatest mathematical mysteries. However, The Rigveda Mandala X has the concepts of 0 and 1, giving examples of the concept of “non-existence” and “existence”. Pingala[4] has been credited with the inventor of Binary Mathematics[5]. Here, the Bakshali manuscript contains many zeros mentioned specifically. Though, many consider the symbol noted as dot, big dot etc., it appears as circle only[6]. Therefore, it’s dating from the first centuries was disputed and taken to the 4^th century CE. In 2017, the Bakhshali manuscript, was subjected to radiocarbon dating conducted. Various dates have been obtained ranging from the 3^rd or 4^th century CE to 12^th century. In fact, composed of material from at least three different periods, as per the C-14 dating.

Table[7] Laboratory codes, radiocarbon determinations, stable carbon isotope composition and calibrated ages for the birch bark from the Bakhshali manuscript. Presented uncertainties in the radiocarbon determination are one standard deviation.

Sample	ORAU laboratory code	Radiocarbon determination / BP	δ / ‰	Calibrated age, 95.4% Confidence interval / cal AD
Bakhshali folio 16	OxA-35,405	1751 ± 29	-27.3	224 – 383
Bakhshali folio 17	OxA-35,406	1247 ± 27	-27.0	680 – 868
Bakhshali folio 33	OxA-35,407	1108 ± 26	-24.6	885 – 993

If that is the case, no student or scholar would keep his book, notebook or textbook with such mixed manuscripts. Such mix-up must have done by the discoverer of or the person recovered the manuscripts. Probably, they could have recovered three such manuscripts at different levels. As Dakshasila University was nearby and it was destroyed by the Mohammedans, all these books could have been found scattered. Or the “enclosed” place, where, the manuscript was found, could have been a school that was destroyed. The most elaborate and authoritative academic study on the manuscript, conducted by Japanese scholar Dr Hayashi Takao[8], asserted that it probably dated from between the 8^th and the 12^th century, based on factors such as the style of writing and the literary and mathematical content. Another researcher has noted some astronomical details also[9]. Thus, the earlier dating of the manuscript goes before the 9th-century inscription of zero found on the wall of a temple in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, which was previously considered to be the oldest recorded example of a zero used as a placeholder in India.

The zero symbol could have been evolved from a dot that was used in ancient India and can be seen throughout the Bakhshali manuscript. The dot was originally used as a ‘placeholder’, meaning it was used to indicate orders of magnitude in a number system – for example, denoting 10s, 100s and 1000s. In fact, in the Bakhshali Mss, it is clearly written as 0 instead of a big dot.  The “Number system” that was reportedly used by the Egyptian, Babylonian, Mayan and Roman are compared with that of the Indian for comparison. While the use of zero as a placeholder was seen in several different ancient cultures, such as among the ancient Mayans and Babylonians, the symbol in the Bakhshali manuscript is particularly significant for two reasons. Firstly, it is this dot that evolved to have a hollow centre and became the symbol that we use as zero today. Secondly, it was only in India that this zero developed into a number in its own right, hence creating the concept and the number zero that we understand today – this happened in 628 CE, just a few centuries after the Bakhshali manuscript was produced, when the Indian astronomer and mathematician Brahmagupta wrote a text called Brahmasphutasiddhanta, which is the first document to discuss zero and its operations.

Ramanujam and zero: The concept and evolution of 0 and ∞ haven challenging for all civilizations, but, the ancient Indians were dealing with them, philosophically and mathematically with clear-cut logic. Of course, there was no difference between philosophy and mathematics till medieval periods. Ramanujam asked his teacher what would happen if zero was divided by zero. They did not use 0 till 12^th century and ∞ 17^th century[10]. The westerners did not recognize them till the medieval / modern period. If any number is divided by itself, 1 is obtained, then, zero divided by zero would give 1 as result. It is not known as to Ramanujan would have read “Bija ganita” of Bhaskaracharya or not. However, it is evident that he had taken much interest in zero and other numbers. Thus, had Ramanujan seen the Bakashali manuscript, many riddles of the manuscript would have been solved. After all, the distance between Cambridge and Oxford is about 100 kms and it would take two hours to reach. It is not known who prevented him not to see the Bakhshali manuscript.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

27-04-2020

[1] Ramanujan prayed to the goddess Namagiri by sitting in the center of a four pillared mandapam facing the goddess, in the Narasimha swamy Temple. It is said that they stayed in the precincts of the temple for three days, and Ramanujan got the permission of the goddess to go to England, in a dream when he was asleep. He woke Narayana Iyer and told him that his mission of getting the permission of the goddess to go to England was accomplished.

[2] G. R. Kaye, The Bakhshali Manuscript – A Study in Medieal Mathematics, Vol.I, in Indian Historical researches, Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1933,  p.1

[3] Birch-bark is an outer bark of the Silver Birch (Betula utilis, Betula bhojpaltra, or the Bhurja tree, as it is vai’iously called) which flourishes in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim. It grows on all the higher ranges of the Kashmiri- hills from a height of about 6,000 feet to 12,000 foot. The forests in the (Gurais district supply most of the bhojpatra that is sold in Srinagar. The bark is used chiefly for the roofing of houses, for wrapping up things, for lining baskets, etc., and the villagers still use it as a writing material.

1. R. Kaye, Vol.I, p.4

[4] Pingala (c.3rd / 2nd century BCE) was an ancient mathematician, famous for his work, the Chandas shastra (chandas-śāstra, also Chandas sutra chandas-sūtra), a Sanskrit treatise on prosody considered one of the Vedanga. Pingala is identified as the younger brother of Panini, the great grammarian of c. 5^th century BCE. Other traditions identify him with Patanjali, the author of the Mahabhashya.

[5] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Date of Pingala – The Origin of Binary Computation in India, VYOMA, Bangalore, 2004, pp.356-362.

[6] R.N. Mukherjee; Zero, Encyclopaedia of Classical Indian Sciences, H. Selin, R. Narasimha (edt.), Universities Press, (2007) pp. 441-444.

[7] David Howell, Carbon dating reveals Bakhshali manuscript is centuries older than scholars believed and is formed of multiple leaves nearly 500 years different in age, By David Howell, Head of Heritage Science at the Bodleian Libraries, 3 July 2017

[8] Hayashi Takao, The Bakhshali Manuscript – an ancient mathematical tratise, Egbert Forsten, Groningen, Netherlands,1995.

[9] Syshma Zadoo, Critical study of the Bakhshali Manuscript, PhD thesis, University of Kashmir, 1992, pp.141-142.

[10] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, From Zero to Infinity, in “Vigyan Bharati Pradeepika”, Bharatiya Vigyan Sammelan, – Proceedings, Vol.8, No.1, April 13, 2002,  pp. 45-54.

The Fifth Telangana History Congress held at Nadigudem, Suryapet, Telangana on January 19th and 20th 2020 – after DACRI, THC started! [3]

The Fifth Telangana History Congress held at Nadigudem, Suryapet, Telangana on January 19^th and 20^th 2020 – after DACRI, THC started! [3]

Telangana Proceedings started by afternoon of 18-01-2020: The actual THC  proceedings started about 1.00 pm with the president’s speech about it and introducing the sectional presidents of different sections. After lunch, the sectional presidents started reading their papers as usual from the printed booklet, printed and distributed to the delegates. Of course, now, because of time, they briefed for 10-15 minutes.

Sl. No	Name Dr / Prof	Section	Topic / title of the paper read
1	K. P. Rao	Ancient	Telangana, the past and present duty
2	Rekha Pande	Medieval	Making history inclusive – rethinking women’s history and new categories = A case study of the temple girls in medieval Deccan.
3	Deepak Kumar	Modern	Why Histem?
4	Kurra Jitendra Babu	Local	The importance of local history

Though, these had been nominated / chosen by the EC for conducting the respective sessions, they could not perform their duties. The paper-presenters were allowed to read papers according to their convenience in the same place. The sectional presidents did not have any role in the proceedings. Then, those who wanted to leave might come and present papers, as announced by the organizers. That meant they could come, just read paper, get a certificate and went away without any active participation in the conference.

The concept of India: Thus, a person from Hyderabad presented the paper, “Concept of India”. He was trying to interpret that only Mohammedans through their language and literature mentioned about “India.” Hindavi language was spoken in and around Delhi. Amir Khusrow, who lived in the thirteenth century during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms (which was the lingua franca of the period) in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi (Persian: ھندوی‎ literally “of Hindus or Indians”). The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi, was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526. He also quoted from Irfan Habib[1], “The first patriotic poem in which India is praised, India is loved, Indians are acclaimed is Amir Khusrau’s long poem in his Nuh Sipihir written in 1318”. Actually, Amir Khusrow’s poems were collected later, as his originals were not available. The Sufi literature influenced by the Bakti literature incorporated Krishna and Rama and even compared with Allah. Allah is compared with Ram, the Zam Zam water with the Ganges waters, Mecca with Kasi and so on. Really, I could not understand the purpose and purport of this paper read in this conference, because, without knowing India, none could have wanted to come to India. I did not know Nadigudem, but, somehow reached here from Chennai, then, I could not say how Nadigudem became a samasthanam, village, pargana and so on!

Kakatiya rulers and Mohammedans[2]: Then, Amarnath, a research student from Kakatiya university presented a paper in Telugu about the Kakatiya rulers and the Mohammedans and the encounters between them, particularly, how Musurnuru Kappayya Nayaka faced them. Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka (r. 1333–1368) led a larger rebellion against the Tughluq rule, driving it out of Warangal in 1336. According to the Kaluvacheru grant of Anithalli, a female member of the Panta Reddi clan in 1423, Kapaya Nayaka was assisted by 75 Nayakas. The grant also states that Prolaya Vema Reddi was one among these 75 Nayakas, but this is doubtful. Muhammad bin Tughluq, who became the Sultan of Delhi in 1324, witnessed numerous rebellions starting in 1330, first in the immediate vicinity in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, which caused a famine in Delhi, and rebellions within ranks in Ma’bar (Madurai) and Bengal. It is possible that Kapaya Nayaka advanced in the direction of Warangal in this period, acquiring some of its territories. Consequently, Telangana was also counted among the rebellious territories.

In 1334–35, the Sultan marched on Deccan in an attempt to quell the rebellions, but his army was struck by some kind of epidemic and the Sultan himself fell gravely ill. In the meantime, Ferishta narrates that Kapaya Nayaka approached the Hoysala ruler Veera Ballala III for assistance in evicting the Sultanate from Warangal. After consideration, assistance was offered. Bilal Dew [Ballala], convened a meeting of his kinsmen and resolved, first, to secure the forts of his own country. and then to remove his seat of government among the mountains. Krishn Naig [Kapaya Nayak] promised, on his part also, that when their plans were ripe for execution, to raise all the Hindoos of Wurungole and Telingana and put himself at their head…. He (Bilal Dew) then raised an army and put part of it under the command of Krishn Naig, who reduced Wurungole and compelled Imad-ool-Moolk, the governor, to retreat to Dowlatabad [Daulatabad] — Ferishta, Tarikh-i-farishti (c. 1600). Historian R. C. Majumdar characterises it as a ‘national revolt’ backed up by a regular army. Malik Maqbul found himself unable to withstand the rebellion and fled to Delhi.

Ferishta states that Kapaya Nayaka and Ballala III then jointly marched on the newly declared Madurai Sultanate and divested it of its outlying territories in particular Tondaimandalam. Kapaya Nayaka ruled over Telangana until 1368. Upon his death, the allied Nayakas are said to have returned to their own towns. Despite his opposition to the Turks, Kapaya Nayaka continued using the Kush Mahal built by the Turks in Warangal and adopted the Persianised title “Sultan of the Andhra country”. In 1361, he gifted to the Bahmani Sultan Mohammed Shah I the Turquoise Throne as part of a treaty agreement. He took control of Warangal from Malik Maqbul in 1336 and thus also of a wider swathe of eastern Telangana that was governed from there. He also tried to support other rebels in the surrounding areas, although in the case of aid given to Alauddin Bahman Shah, the outcome was that his fellow rebel turned on him. Several military engagements with Bahaman Shah followed over a period of years, during which Kapaya Nayaka had to cede various forts and territories. His weakened position was exploited by the Reddis and the Recherla Nayaks, the latter of whom caused his death in battle at Bhimavaram and ended the period of the Musunuri family.

The second day 20-01-2020 proceedings of the THC: Unlike yesterday, the huge crowd gathered, today, I could see only about 60 delegates sitting there. They were trying to arrange PPT provision also. It was giving some problem. The projected images were also not clear and therefore, they were covering the side portions of the stage with a cloth. Here, also, no paper list was provided. The organizers accepted that they received only about 20 papers, that too, titles, summaries and a few full papers. Coming to my case, though, I sent my paper through e-mail and acknowledged, it was not listed. Incidentally, I could find in the “Souvenir” though, 16 papers were listed and printed, I could note only five papers were presented and other paper-papers did not turn up. Then, it was added to be presented in the second session after tea break.  Thus, it is evident that the person-in-charge of “papers” had failed in his duty by not including my paper, though I have sent full paper by e-mail. Really, I do not know why it has been happening in my case then and there. As e-mail system cannot make any mistake, definitely, the persons involved in handling such system have been manipulating.

Ellamma, Renuka Devi cult: A retd. Prof from Kuppam university tried to argue that the Ellamma / Renuka Devi cult started from the Telangana state. He even tried to attribute the sculptures at Alampur to such a cult. The headless body fell at a place called as “Mundavalli,” where, Mundavelli temple is there near Alampur. It is clear that he was exaggerating and interpreting with a stretched explanation to locate the story in the Telangana area. Really, I do not know why certain paper readers, researchers and others have been trying to narrow down and locate everything in the Telangana geography.  Actually, the Yogamba / Jogalamba Devi temple is regarded as one of the Sakti-peetha, where, Sati Devi’s upper teeth fell. The original temples were destroyed by the Muslims in 1390 and it was rebuilt after  615 years i.e, in 2005.

Manuscript Heritage on the borders of Telangana[3]: Bujangarao Bode presented his paper on the topic mentioned. He was narrating in general, where manuscripts are there, how they are preserved, kept and neglected also. He was al accusing that some mss are missing from National archives, New Delhi. He also listed out the institutions and places where mss are available.

Telangs – The Mons of Burma and Thailand[4]: S. Uday Bhanu based on the secondary sources, the books are written by the European researchers on the SEA, quoting verbatim of their paragraphs, tried to interpret that the “Telengs” were Telangana people and the Muns / Mons were south Indians settled there in Burma.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

21-01-2020

[1] Irfan Habib, Building the idea of India, Lecture delivered October 07, 2015 Kennedy Auditorium

Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh.

 http://ia801207.us.archive.org/11/items/IdeaofIndiabyIrfanHabib/Building the Idea of India.pdf

[2] His paper – summary – has been printed in the Souvenir of the Telangana History Congress, the Annual Conference 2020, p.32.

[3] His full paper has been printed in the Souvenir of the Telangana History Congress, the Annual Conference 2020, pp.24-30.

[4] His paper – summary – has been printed in the Souvenir of the Telangana History Congress, the Annual Conference 2020, pp.35-36.

Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college, on august 29th and 30th 2019 [3]

Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college,  on august 29^th and 30^th 2019 [3]

Shanti Pappu presents her paper

Shanti Pappu presents her paper, another view

30-08-2019 Second day proceedings – Dr Shanti Pappu, Sharma Centre for Heritage Education, Chennai: South Asia is rich in Lower Paleolithic Acheulian sites[1]. These have been attributed to the Middle Pleistocene on the basis of a small number of dates, with a few older but disputed age estimates. Here, we report new ages from the excavated site of Attirampakkam, where paleomagnetic measurements and direct 26Al/10Be burial dating of stone artifacts now position the earliest Acheulian levels as no younger than 1.07 million years ago (Ma), with a pooled average age of 1.51 T 0.07 Ma. These results reveal that, during the Early Pleistocene, India was already occupied by hominins fully conversant with an Acheulian technology including handaxes and cleavers among other artifacts. This implies that a spread of bifacial technologies across Asia occurred earlier than previously accepted. She also delved upon another site. The site of Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu, South India, has been sporadically studied for over a century[2]. Observations on its stratigraphy and cultural sequence have influenced the development of concepts in Indian Paleolithic archaeology, particularly in relation to the “Madras Handaxe Tradition” of the Acheulian. These studies were primarily based on assemblages from the surface and from within ferruginous gravels, but lacked any detailed analysis of the lithic assemblages. Our ongoing excavations at the site have led to the discovery of Acheulian industries within laminated clay deposits underlying ferruginous gravels, which were previously considered to be archaeologically sterile. This paper puts forward observations on the context of Acheulian assemblages within the clay deposits, as well as preliminary observations on bifaces from this horizon.

Pappu presents her paper.audience

Pappu presents her paper.audience

Dr Sila Tripati, Principal Technical Officer, NIO, Goa: Mahabalipuram, the famous centre of Pallava art and architecture, is situated on the coast of Tamil Nadu[3]. The local traditions and the foreign accounts vividly refer to the submergence of six temples out of seven that existed here. Recent underwater archaeological explorations in the area have revealed many structural remains including fallen walls, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains. The structures were badly damaged and scattered owing to strong underwater currents and swells. Due to thick biological growth, engravings on the stone blocks, if any, could not be noticed. Based on its alignment and form, they are considered to be of man-made in origin. Based on the archaeological evidences on land, the earliest possible date of these structures is estimated to be around 1500 years BP. The major cause of the submergence of these structures is severe coastal erosion prevailing in the region. Lakshadweep Islands lie on the sea route between South Asia, Far East and African countries. Being on the trade route, boats and ships used the islands of Lakshadweep as a stopover to take on fresh water. Lakshadweep Islands played an important role in the shipping route before the opening of the Suez Canal[4].

The 200-year-old wreck is remarkably preserved and merits further investigation. From the survey the wreck appears to be of moderate size and 50m long. The cannon and gunpowder boxes adjacent to the wreck do not exclude a cargo vessel as these carried an armament in this period. While its location suggests Danish nationality it is possible it belonged to another East India Company. Although neither the identification of the ship’s nationality nor the ship’s route is possible at present, further exploration should supply these. The discovery of the Poompuhar wreck is an important event in Indian marine archaeology[5].

He has problem with Tamil and Sangam literature, as he mentions Tamil words and expressions wrongly. “Manigramathar” was mentioned as “Banigramathar,” and under “Sangam literature,” besides, “Pattuppattu” and “Ettuttogar,” other literature was also included[6]. About the trade winds, he insisted that the monsoon wind directions were same as that of period 1000 years back.

Dr S. Ramakrishna Pisipaty, SCSVMV University, Kanchipuram: About Kancipuram, he was presenting with the excavated examples with PPT. An early iron workshop was found in three different areas in Palnellur village, Kanchipurram on southern part of India. Ore and slag, terracotta crucible and pipes in different measurements have been unearthed from the village. Unfinished or fritter away objects, crucibles, mould like objects, etc., were also unearthed from the excavations. Near workshop area, an ore dump has retrieved from the site. The ore is broken into small pieces like round balls were reported from Palnerllur excavations. It may be made for preroasting the ore. After roasting for a few hours and cooling down, the ore is broken in pieces of an inch (more or less) and together with charcoal (layer by layer) heated in a furnace. Any large impurities in the ore can be crushed and removed.

Zoomorphic forms: Structures in different zoomorphic forms like reptiles were reported for the first time from the recent excavations. It was reported not only for the time but also new to the archaeological records. The total length of structure is in 15.50 m and 12 m breadth of natural bed rock. In the middle made a circular pit and remove the stone upto 1.50 m depth. On four sides not retouched the bed rock and appeared looks like a head, tail and limbs. The total figure has appeared like a tortoise. The central circular structure is in 24 m circumference and made of 21 huge semi dressed boulders, out of two (No 6 & 21a) are well dressed. It is made of two chambered central structure (8 and 7 X 3 feet) on a huge monolithic well dressed sand stone slab in semi circular with extend arms towards east. There is not any grave offerings or mortal remains except two carnelian beads and two terracotta legged sarcophagi on head portion. Well planned and high technically skilled laborious structure built to memorialize their beloved. It may be presumed from the evidences that the structure was constructed as a memorial of an important person(s) the society. From the same place reptile shaped extension on four sides with boulders circular demarcation around the seven orthostats cists, cist and dolmen, etc., structures were also reported. All these forms are reported for the first time in the records of structures for memorialize the death in the region or elsewhere.

Terracotta Ring Memorials: Structures for memorialize the death with terracotta rings, an unique evidence was unearthed from the southern part of India. From the river Vegavati near Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu more than 35 ring structures were traced in the dried channel and many more were noticed in disturbed condition (Pisipaty 2009; 2011, 2012). These all were constructed with seven terracotta rings of similar measurements (75 cm diameter and 15 cm height with 5 cm) with grave offerings (Fig 10). Earthen ware well fired vessels, five in all, were made of fast wheel with red slip up to bottom portion, utilized for cooking and offering. Three of them are in round shaped body with similar capacity and one with spout. The memorials structures with terracotta not only a unique practice of the region but also reported for the first time in the records of archaeology in the region or elsewhere. The lower Palar river in the Kanchipuram district is considered to be a focus centre of history and civilization on southern part of India. In this region which serves as human habitation right from the hominids till today. It is possible that the early humans not only made tools on the riverbank but also lived there. Palaeo-channel on the other, it would have been a secure campsite. It may also be true that where stone tools and equipment were fashioned, provided an evidence of early human migration.

 

 

Kanchipuram from early times to modern: During the Early Historical period, it was the main hub of a large settlement with urban characters along with many small satellite centers upto east cost. Costal connectivity through the river Palar is an added advantage to the region which facilitates trade activities. Trade with other regions in general and particularly with long distance further increased wealth and fame of the region which attracted not only the rulers of different regions but also religious sects. Religious propagators of different sects and philosophers from Adisankara further through the importance to this region. All round developments of the region with urban sophisticated features, the Kanchipuram appeared as the best city among many (nagareshu kanchi) for living (kanchivasaha) to Hindus (Kān͂cī Māhātmyam) and pilgrimage to all religious sects of India. Further, it may also be noted that this is the only important place for all religious faiths i.e. saiva, vaishnava, sakta, jaina till know and Buddhism too at that time.

 

 

After tea-break, there were paper presentation by J. Soundararajan and K. Amarnath Ramakrishna.

The delegates were interacting with K. Amarnath Ramakrishna, who conducted excavations at Kizhadi.

Amarnath- with some delegates – Amudhan and Komalavalli

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao was appreciating Amarnath’s work done

V. Rajeswari and others joined

J. Soundararajan: He delved upon the excavations carried on at Arpakkam. Arpakkam in Kanchipuram taluk and district, is a small village ((79˚45’42” E 12˚ 44’12”N) 13kms. south of the district headquarters. i.e. Kanchipuram. It is bounded on the north by the villages Thailaiyilaperumbakkam, Perumbakkam, Kilaperumbakkam and Nelveli; east by the villages Kilputhur, Kavanthandalam; south by the village Magaral and on the west by Tiruvannamalai. The village is situated on the state highway leading from Kanchipuram to Uttiramerur. It is accessible by bus from Kanchipuram as well as Uttiramerur. Historically, important places like Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram and Uttiramerur are found around Arpakkam within a radius of 10kms. The place is located in between two rivers namely Cheyyar and Palar. Among the places around Arpakkam, Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram and Uttiramerur are archaeologically very significant for their Pallava rock cuts, structural temples, and epigraphical remains. It is a known fact that Kanchipuram and Mamallpuram were respectively the political capital and port city of the Pallavas, while the existence of a well established electoral system is endorsed in lithic record at Uttiramerur. Apart from these, the region is studded with many jaina centers with natural caverns once inhabited by Jaina monks, containing stone beds and brahmi inscriptions datable to the early centuries of the Christian era[7]. On this score, Tondur, Neganurpatti and Tirunatharkundru could be cited as examples. From the epigraphical records it is gleaned, that Arpakkam was formed part of Magaral nadu of Eyil Kottam in Tondaimandalam.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

01-09-2019

[1] Pappu, Shanti, et al. Early Pleistocene presence of Acheulian hominins in south India.” science 331.6024 (2011): 1596-1599.

[2] Pappu, Shanti, and Kumar Akhilesh. “Preliminary observations on the Acheulian assemblages from Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu.” Axe Age: Acheulian Tool-making From Quarry to Discard (2006): 155-180.

[3] Gaur, A. S., Sila Tripati, and K. H. Vora. “Underwater investigations off Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India.” Indian Academy of Sciences, 2004.

[4] Tripati, Sila. Stone anchors from Minicoy Island, Lakshadweep, India.” (2009).

[5] Gaur, A. S., et al. Preliminary observations on an 18th‐century wreck at Poompuhar (east coast of India).” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 26.2 (1997): 118-126.

[6] In fact, N. Rajendran was also mentioning in the same way including Padinen Kizhkanakku and Aimperum kappiyangal.

[7] I.Mahadevan, Recent Discoveries of Jaina inscriptions in Tamil Nadu”, RISHABH SAURABH, New Delhi, 1994, pp. 116-134

Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college, on august 29th and 30th 2019 [1]

 Proceedings of the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ – held Meenakshi college,  on august 29^th and 30^th 2019 [1]

Meenakshi college for women (Autonomous): I have been at the Meenakshi College for several times. I attended the National Conference conducted on “Contribution of Tribals of Tamilnadu” held from June 17^th and 18^th 2006, for which I was the convener. In 2016, I attended “Salvage archaeology and Heritage Management in India” and presented a paper on theme of the topic. Meenakshi College for Women arranged the symposium on ‘Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Reflected Through Excavations’ by the Department of History sponsored by the Archaeological Survey of India and ICHR. It was to be inaugurated by the Deputy Chief Minister O. Panneerselvam, but, he could not come. A photo exhibition on excavations was also arranged at the Homibaba Hall, first floor. For paper presenter Rs. 500/- and student participant Rs.200/- was charged as delegate fees. In the file given, no details of the symposium – speakers / paper presenters, heir titles etc., were available, but, one scribbling pad and a pen. It appears that the college conducts such seminar / conference every year. I am attending after 2016, when they conducted seminar on “Salvage archaeology.” This year, as I received information and invitation through e-mail, I could attend. Of course, I take such occasions as an opportunity to meet friends again, as I have been watching them since their student days. In these 35 years, they have become professors, HODs, VCs and some of them retired and getting retired also, as time goes.

For registered delegates, what were given….

After registration………………..

The broadcast of “Fit India”: As already mentioned that he symposium was to be inaugurated by the Deputy Chief Minister O. Panneerselvam, but, he could not come, because of his official preoccupation, it was inaugurated by N. Rajendran, VC of Kaikkaudi University. The Circular No. CBSE/DIR (ACAD)/2019 and Acad- 43/2019 Dated August 26, 2019 issued to all the Heads of Schools affiliated to CBSE on the Subject: Launch of Fit India Movement on 29th August, 2019, which read as follows[1]: “The Fit India Movement will be launched by the Hon’ble Prime Minister on 29th August, 2019 at Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium, New Delhi from 10.00 am to 11.00 am. During the launch function, Hon’ble Prime Minister would also administer a Fitness Pledge. The event will be broadcast live by Doordarshan through DD National, DD News and DD India. All schools are requested to make necessary arrangements for viewing/hearing of the launch function of the Fit India Movement by the Honorable Prime Minister on 29th August, 2019 and take the Fitness Pledge. Details of the participation along with video and photographs should be uploaded on the link https://forms.gle/H4NioqV867jcGjfW9 on or before 30th August 2019”. Accordingly, it was shown up to 11.23 Hrs. Then, the symposium business started.

Note all were watching the direct telecast…..

Fit India, the audience

Indian historiography should be “Bharat centric” and not “Euro-centric” – N. Rajendran: After the introduction of the theme of the symposium by V. Rajeswari, of the college, N. Rajendran started his presidential speech: “I believe what Swami Vivekananda told that men of nerves like steel and body like iron are required to carry out certain  work…..it is said that archaeology is the handmaid of history, in fact, without archaeology, there is no history……. According to Rene Descartes history and literature would not come under the realm of knowledge like science. Many times, it is suggested that the past has to be forgotten, as it is not necessary, but, it is not possible. Man has to live with the past…..Stating that education was based on western ideologies during the Colonial period, laying less importance to Indian ethos and culture, N. Rajendran, Vice-Chancellor, Alagappa University, has said the new draft education policy laid emphasis for providing India-Centric or Bharat-Centric education. during the Colonial period education was based on the Western ideologies and it did not take into account Indian ethos, culture and tradition………….Whether India has the sense of history is the moot question. Rajatarangini fits in the frame of historiography, as Kalhana quoted his narrative based on 18 puranas of which onlt Jivanatha purana is available[2]…………………Definitely Indians had a sense of history. …In this world, every nation’s history has been written by its own person, but, Indian history by foreigner / European. Therefore avoiding “euro-centric bias” Indian history has to be “Bharat centric”……Linguistic skills should be taught to students…. ”

Students as audience looking at

Bharat-centric, what Rajendran talks about

Indian Historians with ideologies and changing ideologies: After becoming VC, he started talking in this way[3]. As I have been listening to them [historians] for the last 35 years, I could note the inconsistency, changeability and contradiction of speech, because of the ideologies followed by them. How they fought with each other at IHC, WAC-III etc., have been discussed y the media, research journals and recorded in the documents. As an executive member of IHC or otherwise, he cannot talk that [Bharat-centric] in the proceedings of IHC. Therefore, while welcoming his changed “ideology” that Indian historiography should be “Bharat-centric,” whether he would continue with such ideas or change, when the government changes in 2024. The so-called historians of India have been imbibed with certain ideologies that is known to all. Most of them have been Marxist and other Communist ideologists from JNU, Delhi University and Universities from West Bengal. In the same way, there have been Mohammedan ideologists who give importance to the medieval period, hailing from Aligarh Muslim University, Jamila Milia Islamia and so on. As I have been attending the proceedings of IHC, SIHC, TNHC, APHC, AIOC etc., for the last 35 years, contesting elections and interacting with the members, I could understand as to how they have been chaging their attitudes towards historiography and ideologies.

12.05 to 12.18 – Dr G. Maheswari, Superintendent Archaeologist, ASI, West Bengal: She talked in very generalized, abstract and  theoretical manner. She appreciated that nowadays, private organizations like Sharma Centre for Heritage Education, India has engaged in the archaeological excavations[4]. She lamented that nowadays, students do not take “history” for their educational pursuit. A book written by Mani was released in between on “Tirumaiyam Fort and Temple.” If history and related subjects are updated and job-oriented, then, only students would come forward to take and read for future benefit.

Dr S. Rajavelu, former prof & HOD, Dept of Maritime History and Maritime archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur – About female terracotta female figurines: After lunch, the symposium started with the presentation of S. V. Rajavelu on “Terracotta figurines found, particularly female”. Generally, it is considered that the terracotta art has been poor-man’s art, but, it is not so, as even royal courts appreciated and promoted it. He pointed out that Harsha Carita, wherein, the king orders to manufacture terracotta figurines for decorative purposes. He pointed out that broken terracotta female figurines were found at Modhur, Mandakappattu, Appukkallu, Kaveripumpattinam, Melapperumpallam, Andippatti and other places.

Quoting from Divakaram, he pointed out that there were 10 types making sculptures with different media:

“கல்லும் உலோகமும் செங்கலும் மரமும்

மண்ணும் சுதையும் தந்தமும் வண்ணமும்

கண்ட சருக்கரையும் மெழுகும் என்றிவை

பத்தே சிற்பத் தொழிற்குறுப் பாவன’’ (திவாகர நிகண்டு – 12ஆவது பல்பொருட் கூட்டத்தொரு பெயர்த் தொகுதி)

1.       Stone 2.      Metal 3.      Brick 4.      Wood 5.      Earth /clay

6.      Mixed clay 7.      Ivory 8.     Coloured sand 9.      Sugar 10.  wax

They were recovered as surface collection and as well as by excavation. In Tamilnadu context, one Shanmugam has written a book on “Tamilnadu Terracotta figurines.”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

01-09-2019

[1] http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Circulars/2019/43_Circular_2019.pdf

[2] But, only, Nilamata Purana is found mentioned and therefore, what he refrrred to is not known. The Nilamata Purana. Sprinagar-Jammu [India]: J. & K. Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, 1968.

[3] The Hindu, New draft education policy is Bharat-centric: VC, SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT JULY 29, 2019 20:03 IST; UPDATED: JULY 29, 2019 20:03 IST.

https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/new-draft-education-policy-is-bharat-centric-vc/article28749347.ece

[4] The Sharma Center for Heritage Education, Chennai (est. 2^ndApril, 1999, Reg. No. 308/4), is a non-profit Public Educational Trust and aimed at promoting research into India’s natural and cultural heritage; and communicating an awareness of this amongst the public. Our areas of contribution are in the fields of cutting-edge research in Indian archaeology, results of which are published in high-ranking scientific journals such as Science.  http://www.sharmaheritage.com/index.php