The Proceedings of the 82nd session of Indian History Congress held at the Kakatiya University (4)

The Proceedings of the 82^nd session of Indian History Congress held at the Kakatiya University (4)

IHC opposing RSS for demonizing Nehru: Expressing grave concern over the growing communal politics in the country, the newly elected General President of the Indian History Congress (IHC), Prof Aditya Mukherjee stressed the need to embrace the ideology of former Prime Minister late Jawaharlal Nehru which will help ‘to explain our present and chart out a vision of the future[1]’. Delivering the General President’s address on “Jawaharlal Nehru in Our Past, Present and Future” at the 82^nd Session of Indian History Congress soon after his installation at the Kakatiya University (KU) campus here on 28-12-2023, Thursday, Prof Mukherjee said, “It is because of what Nehru stood for that he is demonized so blatantly by the communal forces today[2]. All kinds of lies and abuse are spread about him using the massive propaganda machinery that the communal forces command today[3]. Nehru is blamed for all of India’s problems for the partition of the country.”[4] Detailing the attempts to tarnish the image of Nehru by the RSS, he said, “A book called 97 Major Blunders of Nehru has now been expanded to “Nehru Files: Nehru’s 127 Historic Blunders”. The list keeps growing as new ‘facts’ are invented. He is even said to have a secret Muslim ancestry.”

Why Aditya is repeating the stuff again and again?: “The demonizing of Nehru and the values he stood for could only be done by distorting history and that is what communal forces have done blatantly,” Prof Mukherjee alleged. Summing up his speech, Mukherjee said “Nehru’s fantastic efforts to raise India from what Tagore called the ‘mud and filth’ left behind by the British has now been replaced with the Indian people being pushed back into that same ‘mud and filth’ of ignorance, obscurantism, dis-empowerment, unfreedom and above all communal hatred.” Incidentally, it is noted that he has repeated the stuff that already appeared in the “National Herald,” the Congress mouth piece[5]. Ironically, the title also appears similar, “Why they demonize Nehru.”[6] Of course, in 2015 when he addressed a seminar at AMU organised ahead of November 14, the 126^th birth anniversary of India’s first PM said[7], “it had become quite the fad to “demonize” India’s first prime minister and hold him responsible for whatever ails modern India. “This tendency can be countered with a proper reading of history”[8].

Mridula Mahajan flayed the incumbent government at the Centre: Earlier, the Chief Guest of the programme, Dr Mridula Mukherjee, Professor of History (Retd.), Jawaharlal Nehru University, in her address also flayed the incumbent government at the Centre for its attempts to misuse and distort Indian history. She stressed the need to stand up against the assault on democracy. It is not known why historians should be associated with any political party, when the talk about secularism, communalism, sectarianism, fascism and so on. Ironically, they have already been accused of holding Government jobs and as well as associating with political parties. In fact, Mridula faced such charges. When they preach to others for some values, then, they should first follow the same. We know what Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa has advised, “One should have the badge of authority for preaching, as otherwise, preaching becomes mockery”!

Mridula Mukherjee wrote “History of Congress Party”: Historian Mridula Mukherjee is a member of the editorial board that brought out the official history of the Congress, although she is the director of Nehru Memorial Museum & Library (NMML), an autonomous body under the ministry of culture[9]. As per the rules, she is prohibited from associating with any political party[10]. “Congress and the Making of Indian Nation”, a two-volume publication brought out by the Congress and released recently during its plenary session, has finance minister Pranab Mukherjee as chief editor and commerce minister Anand Sharma as convener of the editorial board[11]. The book was released by PM, who is also the culture minister, and Congress president Sonia Gandhi[12]. There is a team of professional historians associated with the project. Mridula, her husband Aditya Mukherjee, a professor of history at Jawaharlal Nehru University, her sister Sucheta Mahajan, also in JNU’s history department and Bhashyam Kasturi, her colleague in NMML, and Rizwan Qaiser, from the department of history and culture, Jamia Millia Islamia, are all part of the team. Kasturi is a contract employee. While sources in the JNU and Jamia administration could not confirm if association with a political party is flouting service rules, in case of Mridula Mukherjee, the violation is clear. She has just over eight months left of her tenure.

What S A Nadeem Rezavi talked about: Secretary of Indian History Congress, Prof S A Nadeem Rezavi, in his welcoming address, also expressed similar views and gave a brief about how the IHC fought against the communal and dictatorial forces since its inception. He appears to be of “Anti-Modi” campaigner type, as had confronted his own VC in such an ideological war[13]. SAZ Rezavi was suspended by the AMU VC in 2016 for his objectionable comments on VC[14]. It is surprising that the historians have been contradicting or confronting each other whenever they were involved with politics. When, the AMU Vice Chancellor Lt. General (retd.) Zamiruddin Shah’s remarks on BJP’s prime ministerial candidate Mr. Narendra Modi in an interview published in The Times of India on 7 May 2014 was of appreciative nature[15], a number of History academics of AMU, JNU and Delhi University on 9 May 2014 adopted a resolution objecting to and criticising him[16].

“secular and scientific study of history”: KU VC, Prof T Ramesh, who presided over the programme, has praised the IHC for its secular and scientific study of history. He reminded the audience that the KU hosted the IHC in 1993. Registrar Prof T Srinivas Rao, outgoing General President of IHC Prof Kesavan Veluthat, and several other noted historians were present. Again the problem has been what is exactly “secular and scientific study of history”, what is “secular and scientific study ..” etc., when the IHC members have been reading, listening and watching the papers, books, speeches and acts of the elite, emeritus and popular historians.  

KU Vice-Chancellor appeals to historians to research Kakatiya irrigation system: Kakatiya University (KU) Vice-Chancellor, Prof Thatikonda Ramesh, emphasised the imperative for historians to adopt a scientific approach to studying history amidst contemporary challenges[17]. Addressing the valedictory session of the 82^nd session of the Indian History Congress (IHC), Prof Thatikonda Ramesh highlighted the dwindling interest in historical disciplines, stressing the responsibility of historians and researchers to revive this interest[18]. He underlined the crucial role of history in administration and lamented the lack of enthusiasm for social sciences, contrasting it with the rapid advancements in technology. Prof Ramesh also praised the enduring usefulness of Kakatiya tanks and irrigation systems and urged members of the IHC to spearhead extensive awareness programmes for history’s study and preservation. KU Registrar Prof T Srinivasa Rao presided over the event. General President of the Indian History Congress, Prof Aditya Mukherjee, IHC Secretary SA Nadeem Rezavi and others spoke. The conference saw 1,063 researchers presenting papers over three days, culminating in the passing of several resolutions during the session.

Valedictory session: Deputy Chief Minister Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka is scheduled to attend the concluding session of the IHC annual session on December 30^th 2023. However, it appears that he did not turn up.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

01-01-2024

---

[1] Telangana Today, Communal forces demonizing Nehru, says Prof Aditya Mukherjee, BY UPDATED ON – 03:25 PM, THU – 28 DECEMBER 20.23

[2] https://telanganatoday.com/communal-forces-demonizing-nehru-says-prof-aditya-mukherjee

[3] Deccan Chronicle, Adopt Nehru’s ideology to protect democracy in country: IHC, DC Correspondent, Published on: December 28, 2023 | Updated on: December 28, 2023

[4] https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/281223/uhc-calls-for-fight-against-communal-politics.html

[5] National Herald, Why they demonise Nehru, Purushottam Agrawal, Published: 14 Nov 2022, 12:00 PM

[6] https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/why-they-demonise-nehru

[7] Times of India, Demonizing Nehru has become quite the fad : Historians, Eram Agha / TNN / Updated: Nov 12, 2015, 20:28 IST

[8] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/demonizing-nehru-has-become-quite-the-fad-historians/articleshow/49759429.cms?from=mdr

[9] Times of India, Nehru library head on Cong panel, flouts rules, Akshaya Mukul / TNN / Dec 29, 2010, 01:18 IST.

[10] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nehru-library-head-on-cong-panel-flouts-rules/articleshow/7181440.cms?from=mdr

[11] The Telegraph, Congress confronts dark chapter 125-year history, as the party sees it, Our Special Correspondent, Published 29.12.2010, 12:00 AM.

[12] https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/congress-confronts-dark-chapter-125-year-history-as-the-party-sees-it/cid/450385

[13] Indian express, AMU prof suspended for objectionable FB post, By: Press Trust of India, Aligarh | July 24, 2014 04:34 IST

[14] https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/amu-prof-suspended-for-objectionable-fb-post/

[15]    Radiance weekly, Academics Slam AMU VC’s Remarks on Modi, Written by…., Published on September 29, 2022  https://radianceweekly.net/academics-slam-amu-vcs-remarks-on-modi/

[16] The signatories to the resolution released by the Deputy Coordinator, Centre of Advanced Study in History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, are Irfan Habib, Professor Emeritus, AMU; D.N. Jha, Professor of History (Retd.), Delhi University; P.K. Shukla, Formerly, Member Secretary, Indian Council of Historical Research; I.A. Khan, Professor of History (Retd.), AMU; Shireen Moosvi, Professor of History (Retd.), AMU; Mridula Mukherjee, Professor of History, J.N.U.; Ramesh Rawat, Professor of Hindi, AMU; S.A. Nadeem Rezavi, Associate Professor, AMU; Aditya Mukherjee, Professor of History, J.N.U.; Farhat Hasan, Professor of History, Delhi University; S.Zaheer Husain Jafri, Professor of History, Delhi University; Ishrat Alam, Associate Professor of History, AMU; and Shalin Jain, Associate Professor, Delhi University.

[17] Telangana Today, KU Vice-Chancellor appeals to historians to research Kakatiya irrigation system. PUBLISHED DATE – 08:54 PM, SAT – 30 DECEMBER 23

[18] https://telanganatoday.com/ku-vice-chancellor-appeals-to-historians-to-research-kakatiya-irrigation-system

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Utility of the subjects and their immediate usage to humanity: Just like tourism, tourism management etc., “History of science and technology”  has been discovered, created and covered under the syllabus and offered as an “elective” subject to the postgraduate students of various disciplines. “History syllabus” has also been formulated to be taught to the students of professional courses like science and technologies, medicine, commerce, management etc., thus, much hype is created with the syllabus to reach and teach history to others.

• No teacher of those subjects proposed such a scheme that they would go and teach “science and technology” to them. 
• So why such exigency arises and for what purpose etc., have also to be analyzed.
• By going through the syllabus, it is clear that the students of professional courses do not gain much by reading such subjects.
• In every subject, mathematics, physics, chemistry, economics, commerce, accounting etc., the origin, progress and development and also the present and future status and scope of them have already been included in the syllabus and taught.
• If fact, their subjects have been and are updated and therefore, such subjects lead to innovative inventions that are immediately converted into parts, accessories, spares, gadgets, appliances, tools and so on useful to humanity.

History of Science and Technology: To write, read, teach and learn “History of Science and Technology”, one need not learn the core subject history, but, the history students cannot understand the “History of Science and Technology,” unless, they are taught from the fundamentals.

• Definitely, all non-history subjects are taught with its origin, which is nothing but history of that subject or perhaps more than that.
• That is how mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology at one side, and commerce, accounts, management, factory physics, industrial chemistry, bionics, mnemonics[1] etc., on the other side are taught in the schools and universities.
•  Though more and more science and technological subjects increase, there is demand for admission.
• However, recently, the subject “History of Science and Technology” is included for the students of history, archaeology, anthropology, numismatics and related subjects with their own formulated syllabus.
• But, they are taught only as history and not as the “History of Science and Technology.”

BCE 5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,5 CE or BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE which is correct?: The scientific study of the origin of the subject “History of Science and Technology”, has been different from the simple subject of “History of Science and Technology, for science students. In fact, under such expected conditions, the history teachers cannot teach the “History of Science and Technology”, to them.

• The concept of “zero” and infinity, decimal number system, calendar, planetary system, etc., have been perplexing even for science students, and therefore, how the history students read and understand them, is not known.
• In fact, for chronology, studying eras, dating and other exercises, history teachers have to understand these concepts. 
• Yet, no history expert is worried about “0” year in between BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE years, while computing.
• Why the Roman numerals – I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X did not have “0” is also not known to them!
• Why the Fibonacci series does not start with “0,” (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc.,) they cannot explain.

These are given only for illustrative purposes and are not exhaustive. Therefore, without knowing “o,” how history teachers would teach about, chronology and related historical developments.

Historical time is linear or cyclic, if “history repeats”!: In science and technology, anything linear or cyclic is understood easily and applied practically, but, in history, nowadays, some historians claim that history is linear and not cyclic. However, having claimed, they have not been able to define exactly how the history has been linear, when “history repeats itself”[2]. Just because, historian has decided take the expression “linear,” he cannot make history “linear.”[3] Again such expertise and elite historians do not bother about the axes and the origin, the zero point. Not only X and Y axes, even Z axis has the other side also.  How then, historians visualize the –ve axes and interpret historical events. Of course, they are totally not bothered as to whether it is 2D or 3D, yet, they prefer to use such terminology in history and historiography.

Using scientific terminology is different from actually working scientifically: Just by using certain terms and expressions, scientific, scientific temper, linear, dynamic, static, etc., at one side and heuristic[4], holistic, euphemistic, epistemological, on the other side, history cannot become scientific or technological, as none of the historical hypotheses, theories and concepts can be tested in the laboratory.

• Earlier, historians used to claim with pride that they should have object in mind, objective mentality and objectivity in dealing with historical facts.
• Now, they assert that they need not have such standards (objectivity).
• Ten historians can write history about the same “object,” and all the ten histories become histories of the object!
• But, science says one is one only; 1+1=2 only, all have accepted universally for thousands of years and it continues.
• Historians and history teachers cannot say in history about anything within a year, 10 years, 100 years… in the same way again and again.
• In India itself,
  • grandfather / grandmother read one history,
  • father / mother read another history,
  • son / daughter read yet another history and
  • now grandson / granddaughter reads still-yet another history!
• This type of history is found in the case of the –
  • Grandfather – Chandragupta Maurya c.324/31 – 297 BCE
  • Father – Bindusara – c.297-273 BCE
  • Grandson – Asoka – c.268-232 BCE

Thus, within three generations, grandfather and father were prehistoric, illiterate and unhistorical also, wheras, the grandson was historic and literate! Again, the grandfather was a Jain, the father Hindu and the grandson a Buddhist! A perfect secular model family!

• In India, there had / have been millions of practices, procedures, and standards followed in day to day life for more than 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 YBP and more. They had / have  and are historical only, unlike their “histories” produced or manufactured by the European Company writers and the 1947-Indian history writers.
• Once a history writer becomes ideological, then, no two historians accept and history in India, it always becomes some sort of TV-debate where four persons come and talk about the same subject in four different ways! They come together only to differ from each other and not to come to any conclusion.

Blind Men and an Elephant: The history writers of the European Companies always mention this “cock and bull story”[5] to denigrate Indians for their acumen[6].  Not only non-Indians have read the sources properly, understood the concept and interpret such stories, but also the listeners, readers and others to verify the authenticity of the stories floated about themselves. The irony has been, this “cock and bull ……….story” has been and is still included in the syllabus and the naïve and gullible teachers go on teach and our students read and appreciate the “idiocy” – stupidity, absurdity and silliness of Indians, and believe that they (the Europeans) only taught Indians how to count, learn and dress properly. More and more “Mayos”[7] have been created to spread such “maya,” and when they would be liberated and brought to light from such darkness[8] is not known.

Any subject is offered as an elective, choice or forced: Again teaching history to other disciplines commerce, economics, management, medicine etc., is different from the teaching of “History of Science and Technology” to history students themselves. Just because, history subject is losing its scope in the academics, the history teachers cannot introduce some syllabus and try to impose the same old stuff on the non-history students.

• The utility, benefit and value of the subject also come into play, when any student selects any subject voluntarily, as an elective or for some other reason.
• The students of the “History of Science and Technology” are interested in progress, development and growth in their studies, research and further pursuits.
• Therefore, they may not be interested in what the dynasties fought with each other, rulers invaded other territories or autocrats made the people suffer.
• Even the social, communal, religious, societal, and other aspects and related issues are also irrelevant to them, as long as they divide people based on any factor.

The utility value of the subject: Ultimately, when job, assignment and employment are decided on the certificates and diplomas received, yet, the application of the learned subject in the field decides the fate of the employee, worker or staff.

• A fitter, electrician, plumber and any other technician after getting certificates, has been ready to work in the field, as he has to carry out his job, as otherwise, he will be sent out immediately on the first day, when he is found that he is not able tp work in his field, in spite of having diploma / certificates in his trade or many certificates including other disciplines. “A jack of all trades but master of none”.
• So also a professionally qualified engineer or doctor or any other expert.
• “If you know the job, come and join immediately,” that type of policy is followed today, walk-in interview, selection and appointment order.
• All the certificates and diplomas come thereafter, just for verification.
• If you have 10 certificates, diplomas and degrees in one discipline or 10 different disciplines, but, you cannot work properly, you will be fired, because, the employers want the work to go on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-08-2023

---

[1] Mnemonics is the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory, A mnemonic device (or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding.

[2] Historic recurrence is the repetition of similar events in history. The concept of historic recurrence has variously been applied to overall human history (e.g., to the rises and falls of empires), to repetitive patterns in the history of a given polity, and to any two specific events which bear a striking similarity. Hypothetically, in the extreme, the concept of historic recurrence assumes the form of the Doctrine of Eternal Recurrence, which has been written about in various forms since antiquity and was described in the 19^th century by Heinrich Heine and Friedrich Nietzsche. While it is often remarked that “history repeats itself”, in cycles of less than cosmological duration this cannot be strictly true. In this interpretation of recurrence, as opposed perhaps to the Nietzschean interpretation, there is no metaphysics. Recurrences take place due to ascertainable circumstances and chains of causality.

[3]  In the case of electricity, electronics, computers, digital technology etc., the electric pulse is sinusoidal, digitized to square-shaped pulses and so on. All such processes cannot be brought under any “linear” explanation or interpretation of history.

[4] A heuristic is a mental shortcut commonly used to simplify problems and avoid cognitive overload. Heuristics are part of how the human brain evolved and is wired, allowing individuals to quickly reach reasonable conclusions or solutions to complex problems.

[5] Cock and bull story, far-fetched and fanciful story or tale of highly dubious validity produced by the British county hoteliers / inns to attract their customers.

[6] The Buddhist text Tittha Sutta, Udāna 6.4, Khuddaka Nikaya, contains one of the earliest versions of the story. The Tittha Sutta is dated to around c. 500 BCE, during the lifetime of the Buddha. An alternative version of the parable describes sighted men, experiencing a large statue on a dark night, or feeling a large object while being blindfolded. They then describe what it is they have experienced. In its various versions, it is a parable that has crossed between many religious traditions and is part of Jain, Hindu and Buddhist texts of 1st millennium CE or before. The story also appears in 2^nd millennium Sufi and Baháʼí Faith lore. The tale later became well known in Europe, with 19^th century American poet John Godfrey Saxe creating his own version as a poem, with a final verse that explains that the elephant is a metaphor for God, and the various blind men represent religions that disagree on something no one has fully experienced. The story has been published in many books for adults and children, and interpreted in a variety of ways.

[7] Katherine Mayo, an American lady  and also reportedly a historian wrote a book Mother India (1927) became  a polemical book as it contained many narratives of  grudge, hate and vengeance against Indian – society, religion and culture. Indians do not know any such book has been written about American or European society, religion and culture.

[8] Mohammedan or Mughal court historians always dub that the kafirs (non-believers, non-Mohammedans) of Hindustan were in the jahallia (in the darkness) and they were trying to show nur (light) through jihad (holy war) with their revealed book (al-kitabiya), as the kafirs do not are any revealed scriptures / book..

Buddha statue, Sanskrit inscription, Satavahana coins found at a temple in the city of Berenike on the Red Sea coast!

Buddha statue, Sanskrit inscription, Satavahana coins found at a temple in the city of Berenike on the Red Sea coast!

Buddha statue found inside a temple on 26-04-2023: A statue of the Buddha dating from the Roman era has been found in the city of Berenike on the Red Sea coast by the joint Polish-American archaeological mission operating during its excavation work in the city’s ancient temple on Wednesday 26-04-2023[1]. Actually, it was found in broken condition and all the parts put together appeared perfect statue made of marble[2]. The archaeological mission has been working at the site since 1994 under the council’s supervision. Berenice Troglodytica, also called Berenike or Baranis, is an ancient seaport of Egypt on the western shore of the Red Sea[3]. It is situated about 825 km south of Suez, 260 km east of Aswan in Upper Egypt and 140 km south of Marsa Alam[4]. Berenike, 140 kilometers south of Marsa Alam, was founded in 275 B.CE. by Egyptian King Ptolemy II (283 to 246 B.C.) who named it after his mother[5].

Important evidence of trade links between Egypt and India during the Roman era: According to Dr. Mostafa Waziri, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, the mission has been working at the site since 1994 under the supervision of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, and during the current season it brought to light important evidence of trade links between Egypt and India during the Roman era[6]. At that time Egypt was located in the center of the trade route that connected the Roman Empire to many parts of the ancient world, including India[7]. Berenike was the most important among the many Red Sea where ships arrived from India laden with products such as pepper, semi-precious stones, textiles and ivory, which were then loaded to camels in order to be transported to the Nile Valley across the desert, and finally on other ships in order to reach Alexandria and, from there, the rest of the Roman Empire[8].

The Indian goods with ships were reaching the East African ports: it is well-known that the Indian goods were in demand for the ancient Egyptian and other civilizations and the Indian ships with loaded goods were reaching all the ports of Eastern Africa, passing through the Red Sea and selling their products. Cotton cloth and spices were always in demand in those countries. The monsoon winds were exploited turning to “trade winds” and thus, hundreds of Indian ships were going to those ports and returning with required goods and gold. Thus, India was becoming more and more wealthy and engaged in producing more goods. As more and more Indian traders, sailors and maritime workers were going out ad they had to stay months and years, their settlements were there with houses and temples. With the passage of time, all these structures disappeared and were buried under the earth. The buried ones are only now discovered through archaeological excavations.

The details of Buddha discovered now on 26-04-2023: Dr. Mariusz Gwiazda, head of the mission from the Polish side, talked about the Buddha statue[9]. He said that it was made of stone quarried either from an area south of Istanbul or locally in Berenike and was dedicated to the temple by one or more wealthy merchants from India[10]. Thus, the movement of Indian goods, ships and people from India to these places and return is proven again. The height of the statue is 71 cm. It depicts the Buddha standing and carrying part of his clothes in his left hand. There is also a halo around his head with the rays of the sun depicted on it, which indicates his radiant mind. There is also a lotus flower next to him. This discovery can be compared with that of the Ivory statue of Lakshmi found at Pompeii in the excavation, because, Indian merchants must have passed through Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to reach the Roman Empire in those days.

The Pompeii Lakshmi is an ivory statuette the Naples museum: The Pompeii Lakshmi is an ivory statuette that was discovered in the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 CE. It was found by Amedeo Maiuri, an Italian scholar, in 1938. The statuette has been dated to the first century CE. The statuette is thought of as representing an Indian goddess of feminine beauty and fertility. It is possible that the sculpture originally formed the handle of a mirror. The yakshi is evidence of commercial trade between India and Rome in the first century CE. Originally, it was thought that the statuette represented the goddess Lakshmi, a goddess of fertility, beauty and wealth, revered by early Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. However, the iconography, in particular the exposed genitals, reveals that the figure is more likely to depict a yakshi, a female tree spirit that represents fertility, or possibly a syncretic version of Venus-Sri-Lakshmi from an ancient exchange between Classical Greco-Roman and Indian cultures. The figure is now in the Secret Museum in the Naples National Archaeological Museum.

Sanskrit inscription and Satavahana coins found: Dr. Stephen Sidbotham, head of the mission from the American side, pointed out that during its work in the temple, the mission also uncovered an inscription in Sanskrit dating back to the Roman Emperor Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus) (244-249 CE). It seems that this inscription is not of the same date as the statue, which is probably much older, as in the temple there were other inscriptions, in Greek, which date back to the early first century CE. Finally, two 2^nd c.CE coins of the central Indian Satavahana Dynasty are among the finds. The city was one of the key transit points for long-distance trade between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean and during the Roman era developed into a prosperous center. Human remains and other artefacts found earlier by Sidebotham’s team showed that Berenike was inhabited by people of all ages and backgrounds.

How and why the maritime trade methodology changed?: During the first centuries, as more and more non-Indian groups had started coming to India by land and ocean-sea route, certain changes also started taking place.

• Considering the demand for the goods, the Indians might have stopped their taking goods across the oceans and seas to sell them.
• Thereby they could reduce their overheads and thus, made the non-Indians to come to India, pay and take the goods.
• Thus, the Romans, Greeks and Persians were always placed at the receiving end.
• The Persians, Greeks and Romans had to apply aggressive methods against India, as could be noted from their literature that  they invaded India, conquered India and so on.
• Of course, slowly, Indians could have lost their territories, after Mahabhart 3101 BCE, as could be noted that the Indian Khatrias scattered, spread in the western direction mixing with others and disappearing, as they slowly lost their identity.
• The piracy could have forced Indians to adopt better and safety method of making non-Indians to come to their ports and trade.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

29-04-2023

---

[1] Archeology.Wiki, Buddha statue found at Berenike on the Red Sea Coast Βy the joint Polish-American archaeological mission, 27 Apr 2023, by Archaeology, Newsroom 

[2]   https://www.archaeology.wiki/blog/2023/04/27/buddha-statue-found-at-berenike-on-the-red-sea-coast/

[3] Arab News, 2nd-century statue of Buddha found in ancient Egyptian seaport, Updated 27 April 2023, GOBRAN MOHAMED, April 27, 2023 22:12

[4] https://www.arabnews.com/node/2294041/middle-east

[5] Egypt Today, A marble statue of Buddha was uncovered in Berenike at the Red Sea, BY Egypt Today staff, Fri, 28 Apr 2023 – 11:44 GMT

[6] https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/124027/A-marble-statue-of-Buddha-was-uncovered-in-Berenike-at

[7] Greek Reporter, Ancient Statue of Buddha Found in Egypt Suggests Links with India, By Alexander Gale, April 28, 2023.

[8] https://greekreporter.com/2023/04/28/ancient-statue-buddha-egypt/

[9] Egypt Museum, Statue of Buddha unearthed at temple in Berenice, April 28, 2023.

[10] https://egypt-museum.com/statue-of-buddha-unearthed-at-temple-in-berenice/

Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – 11-03-2023- Iron and Steel – continued (5)

Recent Advances in South Indian Archaeology – The 2^nd International Symposium in memory of Iravatham Mahadevan – 11-03-2023- Iron and Steel – continued (5)

11-03-2023- Iron and steel paper continued- Results and discussion XRF analysis[1]: The samples were analysed using XRF. Figure 3 a–d shows details of composition (in wt%). Although XRF is not a reliable technique to obtain the elemental composition, we have used it to get an approximate idea regarding the composition before cutting samples. Iron shows up as a major element for each sample in the XRF analysis. Therefore, it is confirmed that the samples are ferrous (Fe). Carbon and phosphorus are the primary alloying elements in iron, which are also reported by Sukhanov et al.34. The XRF plot shows that each sample contains iron and phosphorus, which are the main elements for iron and steel (Figure 3).

The percentage of carbon is not shown due to the limitation of the XRF analysis. Other elements (non-metals Na, Cl, Ca) present in the sample as impurity during excavation are also observed in the XRF bar graph. Microstructural analysis The optical microstructure of the specimen is shown in Figure 4 a for sample AM/1 (axe).

Figure 4 a shows the region in the microstructure of the material etched with Nital. The microstructure reveals that specimen AM/1 is made using high carbon steel. Figure 4 a shows randomly oriented morphology with three-dimensional shapes such as plate, lath and sheet. The randomly oriented pattern and ultra-fine microstructure indicate that the specimen is introduced with severe thermo-mechanical processing during product manufacture or production of iron. It is also observed from Figure 4 a that various inclusions and slags are trapped inside the microstructure in rod and round shape. Figure 4 a shows that the rod-shaped inclusions are oriented in the horizontal direction and the loading/hammering during processing is vertical.

The bloomery process[2] produces a variety of similar iron and steel objects, as illustrated in the literature[3]. The inclusion and slag are generally trapped inside the bloom, and need continuous hammering to remove the slag and unburnt charcoal fuel. Therefore, the analysis suggests that the axe was perhaps made using steel which was a product of the bloomery process. Similarly, the microstructure from an optical microscope for the samples AM/2, AM/3 and VM/1 is shown in Figure 4 b–d respectively, in the polished and etched condition (Nital). Pits, micro-cracks and foreign particles can be seen in each sample, which shows their degraded state loaded with foreign particles. For sample AM/2 (Figure 4 b), the microstructure shows the network of foreign particles with metal, including voids. However, the structure observed in the rectangular box reveals the solidification microstructure. Similarly, Figure 4 c shows the columnar solidification morphology in sample AM/3. This structure is similar to that found in the cast and solidified steels. Sample VM/1 also shows a similar alternate columnar structure (Figure 4 d).

Phase analysis[4]: A detailed analysis of different samples was done using FE-SEM and EDX techniques to reveal the microstructure and phases present inside the specimen. The mirrorfinished polished samples were observed under FE-SEM without etching (Figure 5 a–d). Figure 5 a shows the photomicrograph of sample AM/1, which contains trapped oxide and slag inside the iron matrix. The alignment of rod-shaped inclusion in a particular direction indicates the thermo-mechanical processing which the axe might have undergone during manufacture. Very fine spherical pinholes are also observed in the microstructure. This could be the result of the trapped slag and unburnt charcoal as the secondary phase inside the specimen during the bloomery process. Figure 5 b shows the photomicrograph of sample AM/2, which is loaded with the cavity and pores (black region). The white part shows the iron and the dark part is the cavity under the backscattered mode of FE-SEM. Figure 5 c shows the cluster of very fine bright dendrites, wüstite, which are also reported in the available literature.

Wüstite phases are commonly available in the iron slag of the bloomery process. Prokop and Suliga8 studied the iron slag from Meghalaya, North East India, and showed that wüstite is present as an acid product for the bloomery iron-making process. In general, the production of iron from its ore produces iron, steel and slag during smelting. The steel and iron are extracted and used locally or traded to far-off places, whereas slags are abandoned near the smelting sites. The slag with the wüstite phase also signifies the microstructure from the bloomery process. The slag is loaded with various voids and a very fine structure of wüstite, and rapidly cools during smelting. Figure 5 d reveals the microstructure of iron slag for sample VM/1 with iron- and silica-rich phase in slag. Detailed analysis of the iron matrix and secondary phases was done using the EDX technique attached to FE-SEM. Figure 6 a shows the SEM micrograph for the AM/1 samples and the EDX spectrum is measured on the slag (dark region) in the micrograph. The slag is rich in metals and non-metals, including iron, which is shown in the inset table. Figure 6 b shows the chemical composition of the iron matrix (sample AM/1) free from inclusions.

The composition[5]: The composition shows the product is made of high carbon steel followed by the carburization process. The specimens are generally heat-treated in the presence of charcoal to improve the strength of the surface of the product. Therefore, the percentage of carbon is relatively higher than steel. It is also observed that the lack of brittleness shows that the product is not made of cast iron, and therefore it is suitable for weapons like axe and sword. Figure 6 c–e shows the EDX map, including the wt% of elements inside the slag for AM/2, AM/3 and VM/1 respectively. The analysis shows the slag includes various acidic products like silica and aluminium. These are mainly observed inside the steel slag, as illustrated in the literature35. It is also observed from the elemental composition and EDX map that the percentage of iron is very high inside the iron slag. The bloomery process during ancient metallurgy was not advanced, and therefore a very high amount of iron remained with the slag. Mechanical analysis The Vickers microhardness for the samples was measured and is plotted in Figure 7 with the indentation micrograph for each sample. The indentation area for sample AM/1 is much more compared to that for the rest of the samples. The size of the indent, as shown in the Figure 7 inset, decreases with increase in hardness, which is also observed in the hardness plot. It is observed that the structure of slags is highly non-homogeneous and reveals a metal–slag composite structure. Therefore, the value of micro-hardness for the slags tremendously varied from the standard deviation and showed a relatively higher value of hardness than the high carbon steel sample (AM/1).

Conclusion[6]: The iron objects collected from two different sites, viz. Ambal and Vallam in Tamil Nadu, dated mid-1st millennium BCE to 10th c. CE and 15^th to 18^th c. CE respectively, were analysed using microscopy as well as mechanical and elemental composition characterization techniques. The result shows that the cutting tool (like an axe) was made of high carbon steel, including the heat-treatment process. The study shows that the tradition of steelmaking might have been well established and the inhabitants were fully equipped with smelting and thermo-mechanical processing facilities. It is also observed that analysing a core for characterization yields more accurate results. Generally, microstructures are not identifiable in slags. However, the slags analysed in this study were loaded with substantial non-metallic materials. Thus in the absence of good quality microstructure and hardness data, a definite conclusion regarding the slags would be premature. However, the present study shows evidence of indigenous steelmaking process in southern Tamil Nadu.

These objects were broadly derived from two contexts: one in the Iron Age–early historical context (AM/1) and others in the medieval context. The production of iron in the Iron Age and early historic contexts could be different. The Iron Age society was predominantly agropastoral, and the implements were produced for agrarian and defence purposes. These samples are from habitation sites, and the Iron Age–early historical sample was part of a craft system that was producing artifacts for the community involved in agrarian operations and also in wars, and is closer to the megalithic cult tradition.

Referring to Sangam literature: The Sangam Tamil poems discuss iron technology and refer to the importance of iron swords in various battles. Thus the iron crafting tradition of the Iron Age–early historic period was in the context of warring communities. However, in medieval times different types of iron production took place; while the medieval kings were involved in battles, they required iron swords; but in household and day-to-day contexts, people used iron objects for construction and other activities. The objects from medieval contexts were mostly from nail fragments. The iron nails produced for construction would be used only once, and hence they would be of different quality. However, the implements used for cutting as part of agrarian and pastoral and battle purposes would have been prepared with care. This might explain the nature of the iron objects presented in the two groups of samples discussed here. However, this needs to be tested by collecting various objects of functional categories from the Iron Age to the medieval period to understand how functional categories determined the production patterns.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

14-03-2023.

---

[1] Singh, A. K., Kanungo, A. K., Selvakumar, V., & Arora, A. (2021). Ancient high-carbon steel from southern Tamil Nadu, India: microstructural and elemental analysis. CURRENT SCIENCE, 121(2), 239.

[2] A bloomery is a type of metallurgical furnace once used widely for smelting iron from its oxides. The bloomery was the earliest form of smelter capable of smelting iron. Bloomeries produce a porous mass of iron and slag called a bloom. The mix of slag and iron in the bloom, termed sponge iron, is usually consolidated and further forged into wrought iron. Blast furnaces, which produce pig iron, have largely superseded bloomeries.

[3]https://asc.iitgn.ac.in/assets/publications/research_papers/High_Carbon_Steel_S_TN_Current_Science_2021.pdf

[4] Qureshi, Mo Rizwan Ahmad, Nishkarsh Srivastava, Alok Kumar Kanungo, Amit Arora, and K. Krishnaraj. “Iron technology in medieval Kerala: archaeometallurgical studies on iron artefacts from Triprangode.” CURRENT SCIENCE 124, no. 3 (2023): 333.

[5] https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/124/03/0333.pdf

[6]  It is evident that they have been presenting and publishing the same subject matter, data, information, analysis etc., in different forums, seminars and journals, yet, this paper has been different from others, showing new details about the iron and steel manufacture.

K. P. Rao was virtually grabbing mike from the paper presenter and he even pushed his hand, as could been seen from the vide recorded.

He was prevented from responding to the questions.

Similarly at the other side, from the audience also, those who wanted to get clarifications were prevented on the one or the other pretext.

Here, also, K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, as an engineer wanted to ask pointed question, but, he was prevented, ……….as could be noted from the recorded video…..

Why India was invaded many times since ancient times, but India did not invade? (2)

Why India was invaded many times since ancient times, but India did not invade? (2)

The reason, why India was invaded: If the reason is analyzed, from the Persian, Greek, Arab and European writings, it is given as follows on many grounds –

1. India was rich with wealth (this is the main reason cited by most of the writers and authors of history books),
2. Honey and milk were flowing (literary version of describing the wealth of India),
3. Pearls and valuables were found on the roads.
4. India was opulent with gold and diamonds
5. Even ants were of dog size carrying golden powder (thus, Indians paid tribute to the Persians).
6. Gorgeous clothes were grown on trees (Herodotus[1].)
7. Many interesting, strange and valuable goods were available that were not available anywhere on the globe.
8. It was paradise heaven and dreamland on the earth.
9. It was the origin of the human race and the land of gods (18^th to 20^th centuries narratives[2]).
10. If “India” was won, that was equal to conquering the world.

These are only for illustrative purposes and not exhaustive, as the Persian, Greek, Arab and European literature and writings give only one-sided narratives.

Critical analysis of the above reasons: A simple analysis of the above reasons in any context of time and place proves that such propositions have been a violation of human values, principles and code of conduct. Just because, “India was rich with health,” could anyone invade and loot? Were the Persian and Greek civilizations were with all advances science and technology, they must have been much rich than other civilizations. How then, they decided to invade “India”? They were also boasted themselves of the highest form education, how they could have been so unkind, heartless and mean to do so? This clearly points to some abnormal, aberrant and unsocial mindset, psyche and attitude of them. Like this, every point can be discussed and elaborated, but, no ethical standard, nor mal principle or code of good conduct admits, permits or accepts such violations. It is irony that when the western scholarship advocates such lofty principles, human rights, woman rights, children rights, animal rights,  and so on, they do not bother about what their forefathers committed on /Indians. Yet, such violations are not discussed, but, made Indians to accept that they were weak, divided and so on. This ideology or compromise contradicts, because, one cannot or have right to dishonour or molest a woman, just because, she is weak, alone or beautiful or physically challenged. If one dies so, his cruel mentality has to be analyzed and exposed, than the weakness of the victim. This is understood, if the psychology of “invader” and “invaded” are critically analyzed.

The psychology of “invader” and “invaded”: If the issue is analyzed, the psychology of “invader” and “invaded” can easily be understood, in any angle, perspective and purview. Perhaps, none has pointed out the morality, ethics and code of conduct in the context. That “India-1947,” still survives, proves that something make her sustain, condition and get along with the times. It has been definitely, the struggle between ahimsa (non-violence) and himsa (violence) since earlier, historical or protohistorical times. Whether 3500 BCE-India, 1500 BCE-India, 550 BCE-India or 326 BCE-India, Indians never knew that such things as “invasion of the Persians and the Greeks” ever happened. No common man knew or anywhere recorded such event, till, the British came and try to discover “Alexander” in the Greek literature comparing many similar words. Though, scholars point out the impact of them on Indians, Indians never felt or cognized such influence. When the 1947-India has still been living with 5000-years old tradition, heritage, culture and civilization, the other civilizations disappeared and the existing ones have been in the zones of  “violence”.  Expansionism, aggression, violation of treaties, no respect for human values, code of conduct, ethics, etc., the “invaders” even today have been the advocates of violence, interested in battles and war; supply of arms and ammunition to continue the war, explode bombs and kill innocent people; exporting such extreme violence now mentioned as “terrorism” in different forms to developing, under-developed and weaker nations. Bertrand Russell[3] analyzed different types of war – war of colonization, war of principle, war of self-defence, war of prestige – but, now, more can be added. And they continued even today after hundred of years.

Whiteman’s burden: The expression may have been popularized through Rudyard Kipling’s book, “The White Man’s Burden” published in 1899. It is implied as ‘the supposed responsibility of European people to govern and care for their colonial subjects’. What was that “burden,” the white man was carrying or responsible for? Who had / has loaded the burden? Ws it loaded by Whiteman himself or by non-Whiteman, black man or brown man? By colonizing, extracting taxes, looting economically, enslaving, breaking families, and all other inter-related socio-economic violations and crimes, the Whiteman devastated many societies on the globe, including India. Thus, the Whiteman became a burden for all other people on the earth and India also. That is why perhaps, the Whiteman was  / is still called mentioned and recorded as vellakkaran, mlecha, angliyan, parangi and so on[4], evidently with contempt. Unless, the Whiteman had made Indian to suffer by many methods, they would not have considered them, so, consciously. Because, these words and expressions had been that of common people of India coming from villages and rural areas. Therefore, the colonial forces, by their various methods of rule, evidently tyrant enough to register their image in the minds of the common people.

Race, racism and racialism in USA and EC: Even in 21^st century, in spite of all progressive, forward looking and scientific temper thinking, race, racism and racialism work in one way or the other. In USA and in certain places of Europe, it has been explicit, in other places, it is implicit working consciously. In hospital admission, the race is asked and it has to be mentioned in the application[5]. It s noted that a pregnant woman of USA is asked whether “she was Northern European, Southern European, Ashkenazi Jewish, Hispanic, African American.” It is also mentioned that, “Before drawing blood, a nurse asked the pregnant woman to state her race.” Race, and its by-product racism, are major factors in the U.S. health system and help define one of America’s health dilemmas[6]. Michael Byrd and Clayton Linda point out, “Racism in medicine and health care has paralleled racism in society…. From the American health system’s very beginnings, race has been, and remains, a pervasive yet enigmatic issue. …Race is important in American health and health care, whether viewed from the perspective of racism adversely affecting clinical decision-making regarding patients”. In London, such issues have gone to courts also. In Germany, Australia and other places one has to live and realize. In UAE, it works differently including religious belief-system. However, Indian sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, historians and others rarely discuss these issues. However, the concepts of British “born to rule,” “white man’s burden” etc., are taught, questions asked in the exams and marks given in India. This is also part of invader-invaded, ruler-ruled, oppressor-oppressed, suppressor-suppressed and so on in research studies.

India never invaded, why?: There have been Itihasa and Puranic references to the effect that  the entire world was “Indian.”[7] Slowly, Indian influence of culture, tradition, heritage and other factors got reduced with changing times. Thus, the climatic, geological and other related factors, made people groups living in different areas started developing their culture with material and non-material modifications. After Mahabharat War dated to 3102 BCE[8], the participant nations spread to various places and they could not reach their destinations. Thus, they settled down wherever possible, thus, they because part and parcel of the culture of the respective places. Thus, during the last 5000 years, many changes had taken place. The geologists, archaeologists, geo-physicists and related experts talk in terms of evolution, epochs, ages, Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, megalithic; chalcolithic, protohistoric and other concepts. In any case, India has history, studied by others.

Will Durant summarized the position of “India”:

“India was the motherland of our race, and Sanskrit the mother of Europe’s languages, she was the mother of our philosophy; mother through the Arabs, of much of our mathematics; mother, through the Buddha, of the ideals embodied in Christianity; mother, through the village community, of self-government and democracy. Mother India is in many tvays the mother of us all”

Sir Charles Elliot has commented about such “invaded” psyche imposed on India:

“Scant justice is done to India’s position in die world by those European histories which recount the exploits of her invader and leave the impression that her own people were a feeble dreamy folk, sundered from the rest of mankind by their seas and mountain frontiers. Such a picture takes no account of the intellectual conquests of the Hindus. Even their political conquests were not contemptible, and are remarkable for the distance, if not the extent, of the territories occupied …. But such military or commercial invasions are insignificant compared with the spread of Indian thought.”

Thus, India was dominating culturally, traditionally with inherited factors and it could have been possible, only when Indians were there in all places of the world. Then, as noted, the geographical area of “India” got reduced and her the Indian influence is felt again through such factors only. Now, they might be dubbed as “nationalist,” “communal” and so on. But, the opinion of others is / has been suppressed and oppressed, yet, they talk about freedom of opinion, speech, writing etc. if such values are to be applicable, they have to be applied universally to all.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

10-09-2022

---

[1] Herodotus, the “father of history” gives such fantastic descriptions and he even mentioned that Indians were having two heads, three eyes, eye in the stomach and so on.

[2] Leon Poliokov, Aryan Myth,

[3] Russell, Bertrand. “The ethics of war.” InThe International Journal of Ethics 25.2, 1915, pp. 127-142.

[4]  வெள்ளக்காரன், …மிலேச்சன், ஆங்கிலேயன், பரங்கி……such other expressions were used in Tamil clearly denote them describing their nature.

[5] Morning, Ann. The nature of race: How scientists think and teach about human difference. University of California Press, USA, 2011, Introduction, p.2.

[6] Byrd, W. Michael, and Linda A. Clayton. “Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey.” Journal of the National Medical Association 93.3 Suppl (2001): pp.11S-34S

[7]  Chaman Lal, India Mother of all of us, Published by the author, New Delhi, 1968.

[8]  Historians and scholars give different dates c.2450 BCE, 1400 BCE etc, however, this date has been expected now based on astronomical and other evidences.

Why India was invaded many times since ancient times, but India did not invade? (1)

Why India was invaded many times since ancient times, but India did not invade? (1)

Indians taught that “India” was invaded always by others: Indian students of schools, colleges and universities are / have been taught that “India” was invaded by the Persians, Greeks, Huns, Arabs, Mohammedans, Europeans and so on[1]. This develops some sort of inferiority complex, in spite of the glorious past of India[2]. A careful reader, however, finds that something is wrong with such imposition, propagation and teaching of such ideas in the curriculum. Indians can also understand the dilemma of the extremities existing in such narratives made. Moreover, what “India,” that was invaded, was not clearly identified, geographically defined and historically described[3]. However, “India” was found so easily, as if it was situated very near to them, before the Indus River. Does it mean that “India” was extended up to the Persian Empire on the west and beyond north-west?  Or “India” was near to the Greece or Ionian peninsular? In any case, they were knowing “India” that existed in those days attracting them for some reason. Then, why they wanted to invade, rather than visit.  The word “invade” connotes attack, assault, raid, loot, forcefully occupy and so on, whereas, “visit” is like a caller, guest, tourist or sightseer.

What  was / is / has been “India”: About “India,” Indians have to propose, propund and establish possible theories and then, select the best possible one. From the earliest times, “India” was conceived, perceived and imagined by the Chinese, Persians, Greeks, Arabs, and others in their own way. It is evident that earlier, Indians were throughout the world, because, incidentally, all were perhaps, “Indians”. As the Indians and the Chinese had / has been the only two living civilizations, definitely, they had acted, interacted, and dialogues with each other.  The Persians called “Hind,” the Greeks “India-intra-gangem” and “India-extra-gangem” and the Arabs “Hind.” Thus, “Hindustan” had been the popular expression for more than 2500 years.  Of course, the Indian literature, the land was mentioned as “Bharat,” and even Manimekhalai of the post-Sangam literature mentioned it as “Bharatam.” Thus, in the Constitution, it has been mentioned, “India that is Bharat.” The Indian literature, definitely describe the world, continents, countries with details. Incidentally, most of the documents have been missing or reportedly not available. However, the astronomical works starting with Vedanga Jyotisha to Surya Siddhanta and other works, the prevalent of cartography, geography, geology etc., were there, as clear cut ideas – Heliocentric theory, the land mass surrounded with oceanic and sea water s etc – of such concepts are available.

“India” is always studied by others,, but, “others” are not studied by Indians: If any foreigner, non-Indian or outsider is subjected to any inconvenience, crime etc., immediately, it gets wide publicity and is reported in the media. However, when any Indian suffers similarly in a foreign country, rarely or nothing is reported in the Indian media. Millions of workers of all sorts have been working in the UAE, USA, European and other countries. Their position is also reported rarely or the issue becomes serious. Of course, they themselves do not express, as they get money, i.e, salary in one way or the other[4]. “India” has been studied by many European, American, Australian and other scholars, experts and researchers[5]. However, Indians have not studied European, American, Australian and other societies, their social processes, institutions, interactions, and other issues. How man-woman relationships, marriage, family, child-growing, child-care, treatment of elders in the family, age-old customs, tradition, heritage and other aspects are not deliberated. How the domestic, industrial, hospital and other institutional waste, garbage and filth are disposed of, who have been engaged, what is their position in the society, whether they can become president, prime minister or marry others and such other subjects are not examined and reported. Thus,  the Indian narratives and discourses dominate and Indians continue to study and work on them, instead of looking at overall progress, development and well-being of 130 crores of people under peaceful conditions.

From ancient times to the medieval period, the Persians, Greek philosophers and Arabs visited India to learn: If Indians had to go by the records of Greeks and Persians, their travellers made visits to India.

• Scylax of Caryanda (in modern Turkey), was commissioned by Darius to explore India and sailed the Indus in 515 BCE.
• Pythagoras of Samos (b. 560 BCE), who is reported to have travelled to India, Persia and Egypt. Esme Wynne-Tyson points out that Pythagoras’ philosophy was essentially that of the highest teaching of Hinduism and that his name may have been conferred on him by the Brahmins, referring to “Pitta Guru” or Father-Teacher.
• Democritus (460 BCE -370 BCE), often referred to as the father of modern science, is reported by Cicero in de Finibus, and Strabo’s in Book XVI as having visited India, in addition to other places in his quest for knowledge[6].
• Reportedly Calanus, a leading figure among the Indian ascetics, called by the Greeks  Gymnosophists  (‘naked sophists’), spent two years in Alexander’s company[7].
• The Neo-Pythagorean Apollonios of Tyana writes of his visit to Taxila around 46 CE, where he met the King Phraotes and the inhabitants of a Hellenized settlement[8].
• During the Abbasid period, not only the Arabs came to India and collected Indian works on different subjects, but also invited Sanskrit scholars to Bagdad to translate the works into Arabic.

Thus, even for knowledge, many Persians, Greeks and Arabs came to “India,” studied in Indian Universities and taken away books / manuscripts on different subjects.  As the Europeans knew such knowledge of numbers, mathematics, chemistry, medicine etc., they were mentioned as Arabs or transmitted by them. Thus, al-chemy, al-gorithm, al-gebra and other words and expressions were created and formed. The Arabs called “Sind-hind,” “Hind-sha,” “Siddha-nt,” “Zij” and so on. Thus, from the 6^th cent.BCE onwards, there was sojourn of the Persians and Greeks to “India,” but, only knowledge transfer had taken place and no invasion or war between the people groups.

Did Babylonian, Assyrian, Sumerian, Akkadian, Egypitian forces invaded India?: Incidentally, “India” was known to Babylonian, Assyrian, Sumerian, Akkadian, Egyptian civilizations, as “Indians” were copying and borrowing mathematics, astronomy and other things from them[9]. However, the Hittite people were invoking “Vedic gods” – Indrasil, Mitrasil, Varunasil and Nasathya and it was duly recorded in the Bogoz khai inscription[10] dated to c.1400-1350 BCE.

After all, the Parasika, Gandhara and other kingdoms were part of “India,” as repeatedly mentioned in the Indian and Persian literature like Vedas and Zend Avesta.

Cotton was indigenous to India and from her soil its knowledge and cultivation spread to the rest of the world. The name of this plant has been borrowed by all the nations of antiquity from India. Thus Sanskrit ‘Karpasa’ (Kapas in Hindi) became ‘Kapas’ in Hebrew and ‘Carpasos’ or ‘Carbasos’ in Greek and Latin and then, cotton.

In Egypt mummies have been found wrapped in coloured cloth, and chemical tests of red fabric found in the tomb of king Tutankhamen in Egypt showed the presence of alizarin a red pigment extracted from madder (Rubia cordifolia).

G. Wilkinson[11], Margret Murray[12], S.A.I. Tirmizi[13] on Indian sources for African history clearly reveals that ebony, ivory and cotton goods including silk meant for wrapping the well-known Egyptian mummies were supplied to Egypt in the Second millennium BCE by the Abyssinian and Somali traders who used to transport them from India. Thus, they were having trading relationship and not aggressive attitude toward invading. Waddle, Donald A Mackenzie, William Jones and others pointed out the similarities between these civilizations and thus, perhaps, they had not invaded India.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

10-09-2022

---

[1]  “Aryan invasion” was also added with the invented racial “Dravidans” also entering into India from the northwest and as well as north-east and so on by different “Aryan-Dravidian” protagonists and racist experts.

[2]  It is some sort of misinformation campaign, willful propaganda, and psychological war carried on by the vested interests of the colonial period to the present day, ideological groups, definitely, working against the Indian ethos.

[3]  The Greek maps attributed to classical cartographers depict the globe and the continents etc., in an incredible, skewed and distorted form, proving that they did not have an idea about “India” of the material period.

[4]  Coolie, daily wages, contract labourer, doing hard and menial work – such categories suffer most, but, they do nt come out with the facts. They suffer, suppress the ill-treatment meted out against them and the other unfavourable conditions. They think and decide that after five or ten years, they could earn a sizeable amount, so that they can live happily in India, after their assignment.

[5]  Thousands of research papers, millions of theses and dissertations, books have been produced, printed and available all about India and most of them have narratives and discourses in the pessimistic attitude with a negative perspective.

[6] Georgios T. Halkias, “When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures“, Religions and Trade Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West, ed. Peter Wick and Volker Rabens, London, 2014, pp.65-115.

[7] Megasthenes’s account of the Calanus story is founded on Onesicritus, see Karttunen, India in Early Greek Literature, 99. Strabo, Geography, trans. Horace Leonard Jones (Loeb Classical Library, 1969), 63–65, reports that after falling ill, Calanus decided to end his life by setting himself on fijire at Susa amid great honours by Alexander and his generals.

[8] Osmond De Beauvoir Priaulx, The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 17, (1860): 70–105.

[9]  This is how, scholars still record in the writings, research papes and books, without going into the logic, reason and sequential development processes based on modern scientific methodology.

[10] In 1907, a German archaeologist, Hugo Winckler, discovered an inscription of Boghozkoi which gives the peace treaty signed by two warring tribes in 1400 B.C. in Asia Minor. These tribes – the Hittites and the Mitanis-invoke the Vedic gods, Mitra, Indra, Varuna, and the twin gods, Ashvinis, the latter to bless the marriage alliance between the royal families.

[11] G. Wilkinson respecting some mummy-cloths examined by the late Mr. Thomson, of Clithero: “My first impression on seeing these cloths was, that the first kinds were muslins, and of Indian manufacture; but this suspicion of their being cotton was soon removed by the microscope. Some were thin and transparent, and of delicate texture, and the finest had 140 threads to the inch in the warp………. Purpurissimum Indicum was brought from India. ……..”

Quoted by L. W. Yaggy and T. L. Haines, Museum of Antiquity – A description of ancient life: The Employment, amusements, customs and habits, the cites, palaces, monuments and tombs, the literature and fine arts of 3000 years ago , Standard Publishing House, New York, 1882, p.380.

[12] Margaret Murray, The Tomb of Two Brothers (Museum Handbook), Manchestor, London, 1910, p.66-67. She quoted the microscopic analysis of Thomson and his comparison with Indian muslin.

[13] Tirmizi, S.A.I, Some Aspects of Medieval Gujarat, Munshiram Manhorlal. Delhi, 1968.