culture at cross-roads? – the International conference held at the University of Madras on March 14th and 15th 2024 (3)

culture at cross-roads? – the International conference held at the University of Madras on March 14^th and 15^th 2024 (3)

Simultaneous session held on 15-03-2024: Simultaneously, a parallel technical session was held online at 10:30am which was chaired by Prof. Mallika Begum – assistant professor at SIET. There were four presenters in total, concentrating on the topics –

1. Healthcare among Adiyan and Mavidan Community[1],
2. Challenges faced by Tribes post covid,
3. Exploring collecting honey practices among the Alu Kurumbas[2] and
4. Cultural influences on Childhood Obesity[3].

As usual, for a regular listener, reader and researcher of these topics could easily remember, recognize and locate the sources (books, papers etc) of the last 50 or even 100 years. A simple Google search also shows many secondary sources with the same or similar titles. About the tribes, the Europeans have taken undue importance and studied with bias. Many times, they have tried to compare these Indian tribes with that of “the last tribes,” proceed and conclude accordingly. Therefore, the paper-presenters should see al tleast, they are mentioning them in their reference or acknowledging otherwise. It is impossible to mention and acknowledge all the sources and references, but, since the plagiarism check is done, such softwares always point to “copying”!    

Rangoli Competition held concurrently: Concurrent to both the sessions, the Rangoli Competition was held with the participation of seven teams from various colleges judged by Prof. Brinda – Ambedkar Law College. It was followed by Saritha Bowmick’s [4] Endowment Lectureship where Dr. B. Bindu– Former Professor and Head of the Department of Anthropology, Kannur University was invited as the speaker. She discerned her thoughts on the anthropological research post Covid-19 and on the vulnerables where the former experienced the rise of the digital era and the latter experienced the influence by the anthropologists on restudying social flexibility, intimacy and sexuality.

Valedictory function: The second day of the conference came to an end with the Valedictory session. The Welcome address was given by Dr. Prabhu Kumari Vanama – the co-convener and organizing Secretary of the Conference. It was followed by a report on the Two Day – International Conference by Aishwariya Wincy- 1st year MA Anthropology student, the University of Madras. Presidential address was given by Dr. M.P. Damodaran, Head of the Department of Anthropology and Convener of the conference.

• The session moved on to the Chief Guest Address by Prof. CMK Reddy – President of the TN Medical Practitioners Association and the Chairman of the Linguistic Minorities Forum of Tamil Nadu.
• Following which Dr. G.J. Sudhakar who is a Professor Emeritus from CPR Institute of Indological Research was awarded with the Life Time Achievement Award and later, discoursed his words of wisdom with the audience.
• Prof. Pareshwar Sahoo – Assistant Professor in the Department of History at Utkal University was called to distribute the certificates to all the presenters, winners and participants.
• The Valedictory Address was given by Prof. K.S. Sarwani – Director at IQAC, TN Ambedkar Law University.  

The Valedictory session was concluded with a Vote of Thanks by Ms. M. Rajam – Guest Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Madras followed by a photo session.

How the papers were presented?: The papers delved upon the selective nature about the theme, area, survey, number of subjects etc., and thus have been with limitations. Though, the researcher acknowledges such “limitations,” they come to conclusions, making them universal, that is not accepted. Moreover, at that time, they bring many popular myths into their narratives to suit their conclusions. As every individual varies, no two individuals could be compared and equated. Though individual differences are accepted, they are identified as couple, family, group, society, nation, country and so on. Where, the coming together individuals have to bury their differences and co-operate to work for a common cause for the same entities of couple, family, group, society, nation, country and so on. That is how, they have been functioning since time immemorial or from Paleolithic to modern periods.

Research has to be updated even at crossroads: As the students, researchers and other young scholars have decided to present papers doing PhD, completing PhD and working as lecturer, Assistant Professor etc., they have to prepare papers to suit the topic and theme of the conference and they are ready or prepared to answer the questions asked. In such academic proceedings and processes, there cannot be any concession, compromise and adjustment. As in the modern times, many facilities are available at the University level, the students have to update their knowledge by reading the recent books and research papers on the subject. They have conducted field studies and get new details and they cannot rehash or manipulate the previous or already published data and information.

Topic may have to be explicit and straight: Had the topic “culture at cross-roads?” been “culture at cross-roads? In India,” specifically, then, the paper presenters and speakers would have come to their topic straight away, after all, here, Indians have to deal with their issues in the changing times. Much time need not be spent by the speakers and paper presenters to explain it again and again without reaching any consensus. As pointed out, it has been a Western concept dealing with the meeting of different people groups, in Europe where, the migration of people was taking place at different periods. As they were believing in race, racism, racialism, segregation, exclusion and other principles, they had been at crossroads to place them at a particular place. About silk-road, maritime-route, trade routes etc., the scholars are well aware of..

Scientific, unscientific, unscientific, pseudo-scientific and so on: There is a difference between scientific and humanities subjects, where research is carried on. The experiments carried on in science and technology have been universal, producing the same results and being accepted universally. The experiments conducted by the arts, humanities and other non-science and technology subjects have been selective, choosy and discriminating covering a small portion, area, issues or few issues of a community or society, at a particular place and time and so on. Though, they too nowadays, they claim that they follow “scientific methodology” etc., they cannot reproduce the same result every time. In fact, in history, history writing, and historiography, the concerned experts openly accept that they do not require any objectivity in their writings.

Note: I waited for many days, requesting the organizers to send the details, photos etc., to complete the blogging. As I have not received as on 24-03-2024, I post the concluding part with the available materials today, i.e, 24-03-2024.

I thank Dr Prabhu Kumari Vanama for sending photos today – 24-03-2-24 and they are also included.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

20-03-2024

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[1] The Mavilan are a Scheduled Tribe of the Indian state Kerala. They inhabit the hill country of the Kannur and Kasaragod districts. They speak Tulu as their primary language and also have knowledge of Malayalam.

Rohisha, I. K., Tessy Treesa Jose, and Jyothi Chakrabarty. “Prevalence of anemia among tribal women.” Journal of family medicine and primary care 8.1 (2019): 145-147.

[2] Sathyanarayanan, C. R., and Nirmal Chandra. “The lost landscapes and livelihood: a case study of the Alu Kurumba of Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.” J Anthropol Survey India 62.2 (2013): 821-50.

Jayaprakash, Prabhakar. “Uunending cultural and economic colonization: the case of Alu Kurumba Adivasi women” Perspectives in Social Work 30 (2015): 1.

[3] Kumanyika, Shiriki K. “Environmental influences on childhood obesity: ethnic and cultural influences in context.” Physiology & behavior 94.1 (2008): 61-70.

Chatham, Rebecca E., and Sandra J. Mixer. “Cultural influences on childhood obesity in ethnic minorities: a qualitative systematic review.” Journal of Transcultural Nursing 31.1 (2020): 87-99.

[4] Sharit Bhowmik 1948-2016; https://www.ces.uc.pt/emancipa/cv/gen/sharit.html

The proceedings of the 81st session of the Indian History Congress held at Chennai from December 27th to 29th , 2022 – Panel discussion, resolutions passed etc., (3)

The proceedings of the 81^st session of the Indian History Congress held at Chennai from December 27^th to 29^th , 2022 – Panel discussion, resolutions passed etc., (3)

Medieval section – headed by Ishrat Alam……

Medieval section – headed by Ishrat Alam……audience RHS view

Medieval section – headed by Ishrat Alam……audience LHS view

Modern India section – headed by Salil Misra…………………….

Modern India section – headed by Salil Misra…………………….audience view

Countries other than India- Section…….

Countries other than India- Section…….headed by Margit Koves………

Similar titled paper appearing in the IHC proceeding………as coould be noted

Manas Dutta papers already published and appearing…………..

Manas Dutta papers already published and appearing…………..

Other discussions: On the second day [28-12-2022], the IHC Symposium on ‘The Evolution of Social Hierarchies in India’ was held with Shalini Shah, R P Bahuguna and Irfan Habib as the key speakers. Prof Habib participated through the online mode. He made observations regarding the caste system in medieval India. There were also special panels, such as ‘Framing the Syllabus for History Under the National Education Policy’ by Aligarh Historians Society, ‘Relooking Tamil History in Socio-Economic Lens: New Questions and Perspectives’ by G J Sudhakar and Arun Bandopadhyay[1], Sudhakar co-ordinated[2]; ‘The Elephant in the Classroom: Teaching Histories of Gender’ by the History Collective, and ‘Dalit History and Politics’ by Y Chinna Rao. The Department of History, MCC, organised two special panels, namely ‘Archaeology and Cultural Heritage of Tamil Nadu’ and ‘Discourse on Dravidian Studies.’ Actually, nothing was informed to the delegates about the last two panels. A booklet, “Panel on relooking Tamil history through Socio-Economic lens new questions and perspectives,” was given to some delegates containing “abstracts” of some papers.

The panel discussion and their result: This type of narratives have become routine and ritualized and they are carried on without caring the delegates. Here in the 81st session, they were held, perhaps, only to them, as the panellists may get some TA etc. The papers presented were not circulated, leave alone that the different panels were discussing with various issues, themes and topics. Most of the “paper presenters” have not spoken about anything new, except the verbose and opinionated views.

For example, in “Many meanings of an Agrarian Relation: Metamorphosis of Mirasidar – Paraiyan encounter in Tamilnadu over Nineteenth century” by Arun Bandhapadhyay, most of the details are already available in his own papers and book published during the last 30 years[3]. Now in 21st century, under the “Dravidian model” or “Dravidian discourse,” what he would opine is the question[4]. If these are read by the Dravidian historians, it has to be seen how they react.

Another paper by Manas Dutta, “Between performances and lived experiences: Exploring the role of Madras Army 1858-1918,” again his own papers already published of the same titles are available[5]. He has dealt with[6], “….the Paraiyans, one of the Dalit sub-caste of the Madras Presidency, and their transformation from a marginalized group to one which was believed to be one of the worthwhile recruits for the colonial army.” And his paper was also published in the early IHC session[7]. So why listeners should revisit these discourses, again and again, is not known. Moreover, they do not encourage or allow listening delegates to ask questions and avoid also.

Aligarh Historians elected in the IHC: Professor Shireen Moosvi (ex-faculty member, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University) has been elected as the Vice President the Indian History Congress, the largest body of professional historians in India, while Professor Syed Ali Nadeem Rezavi, Professor Manvendra Kumar Pundhir, and Professor Syed Jabir Raza have been been elected as the Secretary, Joint Secretary, and Treasurer respectively[8]. Eminent historian Professor Irfan Habib and Professor Ishrat Alam have been elected as Members, the Executive Committee of the prominent body[9]. Incidentally Professor Alam was also the President of the Medieval India Section of the Indian History Congress this year. Notably the annual session of the Indian History Congress was held at Madras Christian College, Chennai between December 27-29, where these historians got elected for their respective positions during the Executive Committee and General Body meetings. During this 81st session of the Indian History Congress, a large contingent of 30 teachers and researchers from the Department of History, AMU participated and contributed research papers in its various sessions, symposiums and annual felicitation lectures. Can you say how many of your Universities elected in this way for IHC?

Resolutions passed by the IHC (details given by News click): The History Congress concluded its 81^st session with a general body meeting and approved as many as five resolutions. It elected Aditya Mukherjee (Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi) as president and Syed Ali Nadeem Rezavi (Aligarh Muslim University) as secretary.

1. One of the resolutions raised concern about the official promotion of the ‘Indian Knowledge System’. It read that it was a worrying trend that the Arthaśāstra and Manusmriti are held as major achievements, although “both texts show a deep-rooted rejection of equality and an addiction to the caste system.”
2. Another resolution noted that the implementation of the Common University Entrance Test (CUET) through the National Testing Agency (NTA) “marks a significant step backwards” for History, a discipline “where the emphasis has been on methodologies, source-based analysis and interpretive frameworks.”
3. On University Grants Commission’s draft syllabi for History in higher education, the Congress resolved that the omission of any mention of the caste system, the removal of the Mughal emperor Akbar in Medieval History and other such developments were grossly “unacademic” features.
4. With special reference to mosques in Varanasi and Mathura, the IHC held that “structures of any architectural significance that are over 200 years old should be duly protected as ‘monuments’ by the Archaeological Survey of India.”
5. A resolution was also passed on the COVID-19 pandemic, which observed the failure of the state policy and the lack of state support during the state-imposed lockdown.

Again, there is no “Grover type” well-informed historians are not there and they can go on passing such resolutions, where they do not have any locus standi.

2019 to 2022 and onwards: On the third day, 29-12-2022, many delegates started moving away from the campus. Moreover, they knew that the session was winding up by the afternoon with business session and valedictory function. The Tamil Nadu government allotted Rs 35 lakh towards the Indian History Congress[10]. Notably, in 2015 the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) stripped the IHC of its special funding. This large event was hosted by the Department of History, MCC. with R Venkataramanujam as the local secretary of the 81st Session of the IHC[11]. The IHC was held in Tamil Nadu after 26 years. It was previously held in the Madras University campus in Chennai in 1996. The previous 80th annual IHC meeting was held in Kannur in 2019 when Kerala governor Arif Mohammad Khan had to face demonstration, sloganeering and of course the aggressive behaviour of Irfan Habib. The Indian History Congress was founded in 1935; it is considered the country’s oldest professional body of historians. At present, it has more than 1,500 members.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

30-12-2022

MCC organizers appreciating the students for their excellent work…………………………….

We can understand from their eyes, joy and happiness…………………………..

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[1] The Hindu, Indian History Congress session concludes, THE HINDU BUREAU

December 30, 2022 06:47 pm | Updated 06:47 pm IST – CHENNAI

[2] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/indian-history-congress-session-concludes/article66318104.ece

[3] Bandhpadhyay, Arun, 1992. “The Agrarian Economy of Tamil Nadu 1820-1855”, K.P. Bagchi & Co., Calcutta.

[4] Bandopadhyay, Arun. “Agrarian Change and Social Mobility in Colonial Conditions: The Mirasi Question in Nineteenth Century Tamil Nadu.” Indian Historical Review 36.2 (2009): 237-256.

[5] “Revisiting the Role of the Paraiyans in the Madras Presidency Army, c. 1801-1894”, The Inclusive,Vol. 1, Issue 2, 2012

[6] “Understanding the Social Complexities in the Madras Army, 1807-1858” paper presented at the Indian History Congress at Gour Bangha University, Feb 2011 and published in the Proceedings of IHC in the Modern India Section. ISSN: 2249-1937.

The article deals with the Paraiyans, one of the Dalit sub-caste of the Madras Presidency, and their transformation from a marginalized group to one which was believed to be one of the worthwhile recruits for the colonial army. The narrative delves on their exalted status as a military subaltern within the general set up of the army department and also traces their subsequent socio-political positions in the southern society under the colonial rule after the 1880s. Despite their primary dependence on agriculture for their survival, several of them preferred to be enlisted in the army under the colonial rule in India for better livelihood and social standing. The official/archival documents highlighted that the Madras Presidency army had given much benefit to them and became a source of their social occupational mobility. Thus, It has been given them a new sense of identity and power and their empowerment as a caste. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2455328X221094391

[7] IHC, February 2011.

[8] Aligarh Muslim University, ALIGARH HISTORIANS ELECTED IN THE INDIAN HISTORY CONGRESS, Aligarh, December 29, 2022 | Public Relation Office.

[9] https://amu.ac.in/news/2022/12/29/aligarh-historians-elected-in-the-indian-history-congress

[10] News Click, Stalin Opens Indian History Congress, Says ‘False History Should be Sidelined’, Sruti MD | 30 Dec 2022.

[11] https://www.newsclick.in/stalin-open-indian-history-congress-false-history-sidelined

Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!

Valasai: Neolithic site, excavations carried on, evidences found including ash mound and their significance thereof!

Valasai village – location: Valasai is a small Village/hamlet in Gudiyattam Block in Vellore District of Tamil Nadu State, India. It comes under Kallapadi Panchayath. It is located 30 KM towards west from District head quarters Vellore. 9 km from Gudiyattam. 170 km from State capital Chennai. Valasai Pin code is 632601 and postal head office is Dharanampet. Valasai is surrounded by K.V. Kuppam Block towards East, Anaicut Block towards South, Bangarupalem Block towards North, Yadamari Block towards North. Pallikonda, Pernampattu, Vellore, Chittoor are the nearby Cities to Valasai. Like Hosur, this area have been associated with the linguistic affinity of the Telugu and Kannada speaking people and their culture.

1980, 2006, 2012 excavations continued: In a first of its kind, students attached to the Madras University’s Ancient History and Archaeology department have excavated a neolithic ash-mound during their field training at Sendoor Malai near Gudiyatham[1]. Though neolithic ash-mounds have earlier been discovered in other parts of south India, including at Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, this is the first time such a mound is excavated in Tamil Nadu[2]. However, ASI in 1980 had already reported that there were evidences found here for the existence of Neolithic people at Valasai site[3]. Thus, the University group had chosen the place for further excavations[4]. Headed by department head J Soundhararajan, 21 post graduate final year students carried out the excavation at Valasai village, situated about 12km from Gudiyatham town, since February 3, 2020[5]. “A thesis submitted in 2006 by Kumar, an alumni of our department, had said there was an extensive mound with multi-cultural phases near Sendoormalai in Vellore district,” said Jinu Koshy excavation in charge, adding, “The site was visited by archaeological survey of India in 2012 to understand the cultural sequences and importance of the site. Later in their study it was confirmed the site was occupied since Neolithic period[6]. Based on the thesis report and the study conducted by ASI, we decided to excavate the site.” In addition, they also unearthed potsherds and stone tools dating back to Neolithic, iron age and early historic periods.

Iron Age evidences found: “The main aim of this excavation was to understand the antiquity and culture of ancient Valasai. Another purpose is to find out the extension of the settlement and its pattern. A systematic archaeological excavation of this mound will unfold the cultural importance and history of this region. Besides, the findings of the excavation would also help in reconstructing the history of south India,” Koshy said[7]. The excavation will be completed in next couple of days. ash mounds were formed by accumulation of burned dung in the pastoral settlements during the Neolithic period[8]. The earliest date and occurrence of these ash-mounds dates back to 2,500BCE. Though, no furnace was found, few funnel type articles found that are related to iron smelting. Had such activities been dominant and regular feature, then, the ash might contain ferrous oxides content also.

Ashmound, dung burning, cattle raiding, and related issues: Allchin and Allchin related[9] the ash mounds found in Karnataka to periodical cattle-dung burning to mark certain festivals, celebrations and rites.  Allchin opined that though over 200 specimens of cattle bones were identified, it is not clear whether this indicates the presence of two separate breeds, one milch variety and the other used for transport and ploughing purposes. The cattle may be identified as at Piklihalli and Maski as normal Bos Indicus. The samples of charcoal and bone show that they belong to a period of 4120 YBP ± 150 or 2160 ± 150 BCE. He has reported that cattle bone were available in ash-mounds also. He mentions about the driving of cattle through bone fires by Mahadev kolis of Bombay, Gonds and Ahirs of Mandla and Gollas of Andhrapradesh. He establishes that the ash mounds mark the sites of Neolithic cattle-pens and that periodically accumulated dung in the pens was burnt. The burnings were the result of the some sort of purposeful activity. Every year at the time of the seasonal migrations, a bone fire ceremony took place in the Neolithic pens.  However, such practices were there in the Tamizhagam has not yet been proved with excavations.

Whether the people of Tamilnadu had the similar practices of Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhra?: Probably, the ceremony involved the cattle being driven through a moderate fire of dung, lighted in the centre of the pen. It would be regarded as auspicious, particularly when the pen was in deed of reconstruction, if the resulting fire got out of control and caught the whole mass of dung. The bones which recovered were almost all from the living areas and they were mostly cut up as if for purposes of food, just as at other permanent Neolithic settlement. Though he quoted about the cattle riding references from Tolkappyam, Pattuppattu and Ettuttogai, he did not think in the lines of tradition of the ancient Tamil culture[10]. Tamil tradition revolved around the valorous capture of cattle during and after battles[11]. M. D. Sampath pointed out that such cattle skirmishes were recorded in the 8th – 10th CE inscriptions of Banas, Gangas, Vaidumabas and Nolambas. This coincides with the “Neolithic cattle keepers” of South India. Peter Johnsen[12] also related to “…..agro-pastoral Landscape, Sites and settlements marked by ash mounds were located in similar landscape elements ecologically favorable to pastoralism and small-scale agriculture……. A close examination of ash mound deposits illustrates the cyclical and repetitive rhythm of activities involved in their construction”.

The practice of driving cattle through fire in Karnataka

“The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption”

74,000 YBP – “The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption” and ash mound problem: Now, one group of researchers claim that 74,000 years ago, one volcanic eruption occurred in Indonesia named as “The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption” and they associate it with the archaeological assemblages at Jwalapuram, in the Jurreru River valley of southern India[13]. Here, they have made a lot of assumptions and presumptions as they note, “may suggest, this interpretation would be” and so on. So far the ash found at the different sites could be dated to 74,000 YBP or otherwise is not known. The Neolithic cattle keepers and cattle raiders and their associated ash and ashmounds have been dated based on the stratiographical evidences, that have been dated.  As excavations have been going on, new evidences to be unearthed might unravel archaeological puzzles and ash mound issue get resolved and settled down.

“The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption”

Stubble burning

Ash mound hypotheses and theories summarized: The question of ash mound has been under under discussion and debate for more than 185 years. Starting with the European Indologists to present excavators have floated many hypotheses and theories that are summarized here, for academic interest:

1. Neolithic ash mounds (sometimes termed as cinder mounds) are man-made landscape features found in some parts of southern India (chiefly around Bellary) that have been dated to the Neolithic period (3000 to 1200 BCE).  Then, excavaters started locating at other places also.
2. They have been a puzzle for long and have been the subject of many conjectures and scientific studies. They are believed to be of ritual significance and produced by early pastoral and agricultural communities by the burning of wood, dung and animal matter. Hundreds of ashmound sites have been identified and many have a low perimeter embankment and some have holes that may have held posts.
3. These ashmounds were traditionally given mythological explanations as the burnt remains of rakshasas described in epics like the Mahabharata.  Then, the dating of them around 3100 BCE might gather strength. However, the Sangam literature cattke raiding ash could be dated to c.580 BCE to 100 CE.
4. A scientific explanation was first attempted by T. J. Newbold who sent notes on Būdigunta, one of the largest such mounds, to James Prinsep who published it in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1836. Newbold suggested that these were volcanic scoriae as the masses had a glassy surface and gave a hollow sound when struck. He was initially of the opinion that it appeared as if of volcanic origin although lacking any other evidence for it. He also pointed out that furnaces around the country did not produce such scoriae or slag. Newbold also pointed to Buchanan Hamilton’s notes on the Rajmahal hills where he had described calcareous remains that the locals referred to as asurhar or giant’s bones.
5. Cavelly Venkata Lachmia (one of Colin Mackenzie’s fellow researchers and president of the Madras Hindu Literary Society) wrote to Newbold that he had gathered theories these were remains of religious sacrifices made in the past or from funerals of past battles. Lachmia also pointed out that he had seen many other places around Mysore and many of these other places like Budihal and Buditippa had the prefix būdi referring to “ash”. Budigunta near Bellary was said to be the largest and recorded as being 46 feet in height and 420 feet in circumference. Budigunta literally points to a huge pit, trench or cavity with ashes.
6. Robert Sewell conjectured that the region was once densely forested and considered several possible explanations including furnaces. He also had the material examined and it was declared that it could not have come from furnaces or brick kilns. The burning of animal matter was considered as one possible source. He also pointed out that these could have been the result of large pyres where the wives of kings committed sati. Then, the Satikal and Heroine stones erected could be dated to Iran age to the medieval periods.
7. Robert Bruce Foote examined Budikanama in 1872 and suggested that these mounds were produced by burning dung and suggested a similarity to zaribas in Africa. Around the same time two amateur archaeologists dug a mound in Kupgal and found bones, pottery, stone axes and other artefacts.
8. Of course, the periodical burning of left out crop, straw[14] etc., had been a regular feature of the Indian farmers since time immemorial or at least from c.5,000 BCE. Also known as Stubble burning, has the practice of intentionally setting fire to the straw stubble that remains after grains, such as rice and wheat, have been harvested. The technique was widespread until the 1990s, when governments increasingly restricted its use, citing reason for pollution.
9. Allchin in 1963 made an analysis of all the theories and pointed out that rainfall was higher in the region during the Neolithic and that these may been forested regions which were burnt down for livestock.
10. Archaeological studies have continued into recent times. Some of the plant remains have been identified and millet cultivation may have been important. Two staple millets Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria verticillata which are not common in modern cultivation were found in several sites while the commonest legumes were Vigna radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum.
11. The animal remains are mainly of cattle, buffalo and pig (whether wild or domesticated, is not easy to determine). These evidences, thus, do not point to any animal sacrifice, non-vegetarian food cooking and eating and so on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

11-02-2021

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[1] Times of India, Neolithic ash-mound found in Tamil Nadu for first time, Karal Marx | TNN | Updated: Feb 22, 2020, 09:39 .

[2] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/neolithic-ash-mound-found-in-tamil-nadu-for-first-time/articleshow/74251975.cms

[3] தமிழ்.இந்து, சென்னை பல்கலைக்கழக மாணவர்கள் அகழாய்வில் வேலூர் மாவட்டத்தில் புதிய கற்கால சாம்பல் மேடு கண்டுபிடிப்பு: தமிழகத்தில் முதல்முறையாக கண்டறிந்துள்ளதாக தகவல், Published : 22 Feb 2020 07:40 AM

Last Updated : 22 Feb 2020 07:41 AM.

[4] https://www.hindutamil.in/news/tamilnadu/540750-excavating-3.html

[5] The Hindu, Students from University of Madras uncover neolithic site in Valasai, Staff reporter, Vellore, February 21, 2020 01:08 IST; Updated February 21, 2020 01:08 IST

[6] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/students-from-university-of-madras-uncover-neolithic-site-in-valasai/article30874743.ece

[7] தினகரன், குடியாத்தம் அருகே வலசை கிராம மலைப்பகுதியில் கீழடியை விட பழமையான புதிய கற்கால தொல்பொருள் மையம்: சென்னை பல்கலைக்கழக மாணவர்கள் கண்டுபிடிப்பு,

2020-02-20@ 13:00:33.

[8] https://www.dinakaran.com/News_Detail.asp?Nid=565510

[9] Allchin, F.R. Neolithic Cattle Keepers of South India: a Study of the Deccan Ashmounds. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. London, 1963.

[10] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding in Sangam Age, paper presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991.

[11] https://ia800901.us.archive.org/24/items/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao/Cattle raiding in Sangam Age- K. V. Ramakrishna Rao.pdf

[12] Johansen, Peter G. Landscape, monumental architecture, and ritual: a reconsideration of the South Indian ashmounds., Journal of anthropological archaeology 23.3 (2004): 309-330.

[13] Petraglia, Michael, et al. Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the Indian subcontinent before and after the Toba super-eruption, science 317.5834 (2007): 114-116, with supporting material Published 6 July, Science 317, 114 (2007) DOI: 10.1126/science.1141564.

[14] Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. It makes up about half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat.