Artificial Intelligence – can it be useful for archaeology, anthropology, history and related subjects?

Artificial Intelligence – can it be useful for archaeology, anthropology, history and related subjects?

What is artificial intelligence?: Simply, it is the “intelligence,” that is “artificial,” virtual and imaginary and thus, not real. When, “intelligence,” brainpower and acumen become artificial, man loses his mental power. Then, who is acquiring that “intelligence other than man? Machine, man-created machine only replaces. However, again, man only controls the computer giving inputs to create such AI. However, the man knows how even another man is controlled through “brain control, brainwashing” etc., either by inducement or threat. A master-slave example is applied for many exigencies with positive and negative connotations and applications. Accordingly, the application of AI is subjected to limitations.

Doing a job, again and again, mechanical and robotics: A robot is considered as human substitute that could do some specific work, as per the computer software program. In industries, wherever, repetitive processes were there, they were controlled to be carried on again and again by man-operated machine, switch, timer and later with computer. Gears and continuously rotating parts are replaced with software programs, where, many processes are repeated. Thus, profile cutting machines have already been used in electrical, electronic and mechanical industries. Slowly, more processes were brought under the computerized control. In the design and development processes of many industries, they are frequently used. In Textiles, garments and related industries, they become essential, as they do such jobs easily with software manipulation. For FMG, its role becomes far and wide. Now, the film, media and ad-companies exploit the maximum.

AI could bring more profits to Internet-dependent companies: Artificial intelligence leverages computers and machines to mimic the problem-solving and decision-making capabilities of the human mind[1]. However, it is not simply man-created robots imitating man, but, more than that in many cases.

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or other animals. It is a field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines.
• AI technology is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative and creative tools (ChatGPT and AI art), and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (such as chess and Go).
• The companies involved in the Internet business directly or indirectly, are very much interested in this field, as the more time man spends on it, the more usage and the more income and profits to them (manufacturers and service providers).

What will happen to the buyers, users and consumers?: With the internet, many of students (from pre-KG to PhD) stopped reading books and just “google” and get prepared for exams. For project work etc., they just copy Wiki[2]. With the rise of mobiles, they virtually become slaves and affecting the human relations. More Internet usage, more men turning to cyber, cyber crimes have also started increasing. Of course, money has been the target, for that all ethics and morals are sacrificed. Thus, unimaginable crimes are committed affecting humanity. It is not that one community, nation, country or continent, but, the whole world gets affected.

India required “demythologization” and not more mythologization through AI: What is important in Indian/Bharat history today is not further mythologization, but the retrieval or recovery of science and technology from such myths. Such a method is called demythologization. At Somnathapuram, the linga was floating, and it was a scientific technique. Here, historically, there is no myth or falsehood. Though, even historians like Romila Thapar have mentioned it, they could not explain the scientific aspect, as they do not know it. Magnetic levitation refers to the floating of an object without the aid of any other object, but only by the magnetic force of like poles repelling each other. It is noteworthy that this technology has now extended to trains as well. German trains called Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) fly like this. A magnetic levitation or floating train is a train that can float without the help of wheels through magnetic levitation technology. When it starts crawling, not all of its parts hit the ground. The speed of these trains going on the magnetic track can exceed 580 kilometres per hour. In the same way, the science and technology behind the Indian material culture can be explained.

The demythologization of Indian history is more important than AI-sponsored pictures: In ancient India, the process of rewriting the epics was started by various vested groups, before the various impacts caused by foreign invasions in Bharat. Jains-Buddhists in particular had rewritten them with many interpolations to show off their antiquity. In other words, they added a narrative of Tirtankaras and Buddhas made available in every yuga[3]. This is why there are so many slokas in Ramayana and Mahabharata increasing from one recension to another. Again the slokas were added when those who learned and realized the legends and tried to remove them, i.e. to change the matters which had already come into prevalent, known and recorded in the manuscripts. First, they tried to give a proper explanation so that such contradictions were understood and ignored. Rewriting, expurgation and editing processes were involved in such correcting processes. Such interchanges ranged from the Jain period to the medieval Muslim and 19^th century colonial periods.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence cannot create new myths by putting on a scientific mask and technical masquerade in methods like pseudo-science, and alchemy. Already now scientific researches like DNA and genetics have been diverted by ideological delusions[4], hybrids with their likes and dislikes. In graphics, models, pictures, films etc. have already been realistically captured and available in circulation. Although somewhat reflective of the real situation, more fictional characters were created. But artificial intelligence is turning real historical heroes into fictional characters. Gods, who are already worshipped as idols, as deities in sanctum sanctorum, are transformed by artificial intelligence into some sort of living human beings. Thus, even the remnants of reality that exist today will eventually disappear or be denied by the ignorant one day.

Commercialization of Science and Technology: Now many people are working to commercialize using the current technologies as how to make money in a short period of time by increasing internet usage. That is, especially in a country like India where there are 140 crore people, even if one crore or just one lakh people become buyers for a product, the manufacturer or seller will get considerable income and profit. So, keeping it in mind, they use their new and novel aggressive campaign tactics. For that, they need advertisement and publicity vigorously. They don’t even bother about quality, standards, efficiency, etc. in such unethical and unspiritual business. Therefore, even when education, textbooks, teachers who teach them; schools and universities come, the idea that anyone should read and study the sources becomes less important in terms of need, status and benefits. That’s why there are so many people who just study and get marks in some subject and qualified, go to work, earn and live comfortably. So in that case, no one seems to care if he says, “Go and read the sources and write with evidence.”

Caution about AI: There is concern about the increase in malpractice in the field of scientific research[5]. As shown by various institutions and studies, institutional, economic and cultural factors have encouraged an increase in cases of professional malpractice including fraud, corruption, plagiarism, conflicts of interest, financial doping, improper attribution, illicit appropriation of ideas, concepts and results, influence peddling, falsification of evidence, data manipulation, exaggeration of results, lack of protection of research subjects, misappropriation or misuse of resources, the commodification of knowledge, use of phantom sources, nepotistic or inbred citation, improper or fraudulent use of information. The researchers have also pointed out that, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a double-edged sword for scientific research. While, on one hand, the incredible potential of AI and the different techniques and technologies for using it make it a product coveted by all scientific research centres and organisations and science funding agencies. On the other, the highly negative impacts that its irresponsible and self-interested use is causing, or could cause, make it a controversial tool, attracting strong criticism from those involved in the different sectors of research…”

Limitations of usage to archaeology, anthropology and related subjects: About the usage of AI for archaeology, anthropology and allied subjects has been discussed and debated, because of the advantages and disadvantages involved[6]. The easy availability of Machine Language (ML) algorithms and lack of expertise on their proper use among the anthropological research community has led to foundational misapplications that have appeared throughout the literature. The resulting unreliable results not only undermine efforts to legitimately incorporate ML into anthropological research, but produce potentially faulty understandings about our human evolutionary and behavioural past[7].

1. Why don’t the AI experts try to analyze and decipher the Indus Valley pictograms, signs or fonts with their artificial intelligence?

2. There are many chronological puzzles in Indian history, why not solve them with their machine language and artificial intelligence?

3. Those who earn money by singing Ramayana and enjoying discourses, can solve the problem of such chronological issues faithfully?

4. Those who are disputing and fighting about Advaita-Dvaitam etc., can bring them under timelines acceptable to commonman?

5. By the application of AI for religious depiction, in an attempt to humanize the gods, they turn them into dehumanized cute cartoon characters only.

6. Therefore, they have to act as a tool to break counter-ideologies and not to be in a position to feed them.

7. What is important in Indian history today is not the mythologization of the existing, but, demythologization, scientifically.

8. But the science and technology contained in the Vedangas, Itihasas, Puranas etc.,  is to be restored and given to the people in an understandable way.

9. There is no need to create new historical problems without solving existing historical and archaeological issues and contradictions.

10. Artificial Intelligence should not become some sort of pseudo-science, alchemy, etc.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

17-01-2024

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[1] https://www.ibm.com/topics/artificial-intelligence

[2]  In fact, I have also referred to Wiki to understand the fundamentals, later to proceed to read other research papers in the context.

[3] Even in Ramayana period, Hains and Buddhists were found. The dates of Titankaras are traced back to Kaliyuga. In Buddhism, buddhas were there in every aeon.

[4]  In spite of “Out of Africa,” theory, Neanderthal exists and the so-called “Aryan-Dravidian” hypotheses and theories continue in India.

[5] González Esteban, Elsa, and Patrici Calvo. “Ethically governing artificial intelligence in the field of scientific research and innovation.” Heliyon 8 (2022) e08946, 2022.

[6] Tenzer, Martina, et al. “Debating AI in archaeology: applications, implications, and ethical considerations.”, 2023.

[7] Calder, Jeff, et al. “Use and misuse of machine learning in anthropology.” IEEE BITS the Information Theory Magazine 2.1 (2022): 102-115.

Why Indian ancient scripts are disappearing, classical languages ignored and inscriptions abandoned?

Why Indian ancient scripts are disappearing, classical languages ignored and inscriptions abandoned?

Many Indian languages and scripts disappearing: Vaani (dialect) changes every 4 kos – roughly 12 km – and paani (water) after every 8 kos[1]. This is a famous saying in Bihar, which is struggling to keep its many languages and scripts alive, with some now listed as endangered[2]. In September 2022, the Bihar government pledged institutional support to eight languages[3]: Sanskrit, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Angika, Bajjika, Bangla and Surjapuri. However, experts say a language needs care, and political and social patronage, to develop and flourish[4]. “If my language is looked down upon by society, how will I feel proud of it? If there is no job opportunity in linguistics, why should one opt for a language?,” asks Sweta Sinha of IIT-Patna. “In the Hindi belt, most people list Hindi as their mother tongue, not Bhojpuri or Magahi.” The 2011 Census listed 1,369 mother tongues in the country. But many such languages and scripts are either no longer spoken or are slowly going extinct. “The state government created various academies for the development of languages. But the academies’ directorships became political posts,” says Subhash Sharma, former development commissioner of Bihar and author of Bhasha Aur Lipi Ka Itihaas.

Buddha’s language: Pali is the language of Buddha’s sermons. It is taught in Allahabad, Magadh and Patna universities. Till 2013, UPSC aspirants could opt for it as a subject. “The good news for Pali is that the language is not yet dead. At least one lakh people speak Pali across the country. It is now being taught at Fergusson College, Pune, and several other universities in Maharashtra. But there is a need to do more for this language,” says Dinkar Prasad, additional commissioner (admin), Darbhanga Division. He is a PhD in Pali with a gold medal from Delhi University and has taught the language to many UPSC aspirants. “The governments of UP and Bihar should at least introduce this language in Class 12, if not for PG and graduation. Buddha was born, found enlightenment, gave his first sermon and attained Mahaparinirvana in these two states. Most of his sermons are in Pali… It must be reintroduced in UPSC as an option,” Prasad adds.

Importance of language and literature: Ambedkar gave importance to “Pali,” and thus, his compiled work has been aptly titled, “Pali and Other Sources of the Buddha and His Dhamma with an Index – Supplement” Vol.II, thus, Indians must have given more importance to Pali than the politicization of Ambedkar and Buddha. The preservation and conservation of language protects the literature of it and the literature the history. At least, at school and college levels, they should have been included in the syllabi, particularly, where, the subjects like ancient languages, religion, history, archaeology, epigraphy and similar subjects are taught. By going on reading the translations, producing interpreted versions of discourses and printed narratives would not give the true facts containing the original language and literature. No expert, researcher or scholar can be biased in learning and teaching the subjects lke epigraphy, linguistics, archaeology, history etc., and with the expertise of the ancient languages, they cannot read any inscriptions.

Old documents in Kaithi: Bihar government offices used the Kaithi script till the early 1900s. Now, it isn’t easy to find people who understand it. “In Bihar, most court cases are related to land disputes and many old land documents are written in Kaithi,” says Bhairab Lal Das, author of a book on the history of the Kaithi script. Jayant Kumar, a professor at NIFT, Patna, has been working on developing key fonts in the Kaithi script. “The state government recently organised a crash course on Kaithi in Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University with 30-40 participants. This is a very good sign. For the development of any language or script, it must be used in regular writing or reading in society,” he says.

Only official native language: Maithili is the only native language of Bihar in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, which lists India’s official languages. Its script known as Mithilakshar or Tiruhata is one of the oldest scripts in which Sanskrit is written. After a long-drawn agitation in the Mithilanchal region, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule in 2003. It was also included as an optional subject in UPSC. However, Bihar Public Service Commission is yet to include it as an optional subject in exams, says Aruna Chaudhary, head of Maithili department at Patna University. “Moreover, teaching this language has been discontinued in most Patna University colleges as there are few takers,” she adds. Madan Mohan Jha, a Maithili-speaking schoolteacher, says: “I am from Mithilanchal. I speak Maithili with my mother and wife. But my kids don’t want to speak it.”

Inferiority complex: Nearly 30km east of Patna, at Pali village, people speak Magahi in a dialect different from Patna’s. And if you travel 50km west from Patna, people in Jehanabad, speak it differently. Similarly, Bhojpuri, prevalent in Bhojpur, Buxar, Kaimur, Rohtas, Saran, Siwan and Gopalganj, is spoken differently in Chhapra, Ara and Sasaram. “Bhojpuri is limited to villages or the downtrodden people. If you speak Bhojpuri or Magahi in Patna, people look down upon you. You will seldom find two Bhojpuri or Magahi-speaking people talking in their mother tongue. Maithili is the only language people can be heard talking in. That’s why Maithili is placed better than other Bihar languages… My kids don’t want to speak Bhojpuri because they have an inferiority complex about the language,” says Vishnu Kant Tiwari, a Bhojpuri speaker.
(With inputs from B K Mishra and Abhay Singh).

The problems in the epigraphy and the job of epigraphists[5]: Just like getting a diploma and becoming “archaka,” anybody with a “diploma in epigraphy” can apply and get the job of “epigraphist.” The following points have to be considered seriously in the context[6]:

• Under the guise of protecting and preserving “classical languages,” much controversies and issues are created than real research useful for the furtherance of the languages.
• Day by day, the learned epigraphists have also been disappearing and the required strength is not filled up. By promotion or by recruitment, new epigraphists may come and occupy the posts, but, most of them are not in a position to decipher and read the inscriptions.
• Just because, funds are received, many govt and non-govt. agencies have started epigraphy cources part time/ full time, one month / one year, on-line / off-line and of different varieties. They may get a certificate and apply for the post of “epigraphist” and get also, but, what they can contribute to the Indian epigraphy is not known.
• As otherwise, none need to worry or lament about the disappearance of script, language and literature. The real faith lies in the practice, propagation and continuance of them, so that such expertise is passed on from one generation to generation.

Government allocates funds for epigraphy: The finance minister in her Budget Speech made an announcement to set up Bharat Shared Repository of Inscriptions (BharatSHRI), a digital epigraphy museum, with digitization of one lakh ancient inscriptions in the first stage[7]. The BharatSHRI will be set up by the Archaeological Survey of India at Hyderabad[8]. The Epigraphy Branch conducts Epigraphical survey, copies the inscriptions, deciphers them and publishes the gist in its Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy and publishes the texts in other epigraphical publications like South Indian Inscriptions, Epigraphica Indica, etc. Whenever, the Epigraphy Branch gets any information on newly discovered inscriptions either from Excavation Branch of ASI or any State Govt. Agency, immediate action is taken to copy and decipher them. Thus, though, many activities have been going on, yet, the persons capable of reading inscriptions have been dwindling down. The seriousness of such conditions is not discussed, but, protests and demonstrations are carried on by the Epigraphy department for fringe issues. Real expertise, wisdom and knowledge are not used for the decipherment, translation and publication of the existing inscriptions. The requirement for such expertise for the future is also not anticipated, persons trained and kept ready to continue the work.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-01-2024

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[1] Times of India, Buddha’s language is fighting extinction, and it’s not alone, Rakesh Roshan / TNN / Jan 14, 2024, 08:09 IST.

[2] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/buddhas-language-is-fighting-extinction-and-its-not-alone/articleshow/106826168.cms?from=mdr

[3] News NBS.24, Buddha’s language is fighting extinction, and it’s not alone, Rakesh Roshan / TNN / Jan 14, 2024

[4] https://news.nbs24.org/2024/01/14/972775/

[5]  K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, What is the real problem with Indian Epigraphy department, Epigraphists – Cadre Restructure, Niti Ayog Report or change of Act and Rules!, Posted on July 31, 2021.

[6] https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2021/07/31/what-is-the-real-problem-with-indian-epigraphy-department-epigraphists-cadre-restructure-niti-ayog-report-or-change-of-act-and-rules/

[7]  PIB, The annual outlay for Ministry of Culture in FY 2023-24 increased by 12.97% to Rs. 3,399.65 Crore, Posted On: 01 FEB 2023 7:03PM by PIB Delhi

[8] https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1895497

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31st to November 2nd 2023 (3)

The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities  (NMMA) – workshop at Chennai from October 31^st to November 2^nd 2023 (3)

The third day proceedings of the NMMA Workshop for the Southern Region: The following speakers delved upon their respective topics and specialized areas. Though, the topic has been documentation of the objects, the speakers mostly discussed about their findings with their valuable experience with important points.

• Prof. Deivanayagam, Tamil University , Thanjavur
• Shri Nishant Zodape and Shri Yash Gupta, on utilisation of open-source software for creating databases,
• Dr. Muthu Shankar, Head of GIS Applications, French Institute, Pondicherry ,
• Dr Arun Raj.T on strategies for stopping illicit trafficking of antiquities” and ultimately
• Dr Charuta Kulkarni, IIT, Madras talking about INQUA Database on Global South

Prof. Deivanayagam, Tamil University, Thanjavur: speaking on identification of Chola Bronzes. He explained with photographs pointing out the nuances of the bronzes. To understand his speech, one should know other subjects also, as because of his versatile experience, he explained many details about the icons and sculptures.

Cholas’ bronzes: Chola bronzes were typically of deities, royalty and the politically powerful people of the day-all in a distinctive Chola style, classically representative of the human form, and perfectly proportioned. The sculptures are recognizable by the way the bodies are posed. They are always graceful, elegant and sensuous, particularly if a sculpture is that of a couple, such as Siva and Parvati. The bronzes also depict the “mudras” or gestures derived from classical dance. Chola master sculptors created their works with the cire perdue, or lost wax process, which is still in use today.

There are two methods of casting metal images-solid and hollow casting. The required image is fashioned by the stapathi in bees wax. Then the wax model is given several coats of fine clay. The clay mould is then carefully dried under the sun. After a few days the clay mould is ready for casting. When the wax model is prepared and is ready for the preparation of the clay mould, arrangements for the preparation of the alloy are made. The five metals to be used in the alloy and they are -copper, silver, gold, brass and lead popularly known as panchaloha. In actual practice by chemical testing we have found the percentages of the metals as follows:

How manufactured – alloying technique[1]: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Normally bronze is a composite alloy of metals-copper, tin, lead, silver and gold in varying proportions. However analysis of South Indian bronzes reveals that they invariably consist of copper, tin, lead, zinc and iron. Trace elements such as arsenic, antimony, Bismuth etc., have been detected. Above l% is considered as a major element and below 0.1% is considered a trace element, e.g. Copper: 79%: Tin 5%, Lead: 13% Zinc 1%; Iron 1%; Trace elements arc arsenic, antimony, nickel and silver and no gold is Present. Manipulating the alloying elements, different shades of metal were produced. This shows tin has been used. Therefore, the alloy is predominantly of copper, tin and lead. The presence of gold and silver is rare or trace. The clay mould with the wax model inside it is baked skillfully over all the wax. When the alloy is ready, it is poured through the orifice into the empty mould in a thin, even and continuous stream. The molten metals allowed for cooling. Then the mould is broken open and the solid metal image is obtained. The image is given finishing touches by the sthapati. This part, the opening of the eyes of the image is what imparts the exquisite expressions on the faces. This is done under some sort of spiritual inspiration. Sometimes, Stapathis are known to take even weeks to open the eves. The science of Image making is dealt with in the ancient Indian science of Silpasastra (Sculpture Science).

Hollow casting- In this case, the object is moulded in clay and the core is coated with wax, which in turn is covered with a coating of clay. After draining the wax by heating, the mould is used for casting. This method is usually associated with North India.

Patina and patination: A Patina is a thin layer of corrosion, usually brown or green, that appears on copper or copper alloys as a result of natural or artificial oxidation. Patina is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of copper, brass, bronze and similar metals and metal alloys (tarnish produced by oxidation or other chemical processes).On metal, patina is a coating of various chemical compounds such as oxides, carbonates, sulfides, or sulfates formed on the surface during exposure to atmospheric elements (oxygen, rain, acid rain, carbon dioxide, sulfur-bearing compounds. The green patina that forms naturally on copper and bronze, sometimes called verdigris, usually consists of varying mixtures of copper chlorides, sulfides, sulfates and carbonates, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.

Nishant Zodape and Yash Gupta: They explained “on utilization of open-source software for creating databases”. With “access” how the excel can be used for filling up data and create a document.

 Muthu Shankar: He explained about the “South Indian Historical Atlas” with many facilities, but, it is not available to the public. The primary data for the project comprise historical and geographical information collected from a large corpus of south Indian inscriptions besides archaeological data collected from a series of field surveys supplemented with the data taken from archaeological reports of ASI and other institutions.   Workshop/review meetings were held every six months are to evaluate the progress of the work. The atlas was developed as web-browser software allowing different basic GIS display and database querying functionalities necessary for a user-friendly usage of the Atlas. It uses W3C (WWW Consortium) compliant Graphics /Open GIS so that the system can be accessed through the internet. The atlas has a conceptual resilience on how to curate data, compile information from it, and disseminate it through new digital tools available then, even when illustrative examples in the application of data science mehods in historical research was scarce. This resulted in the curation and archival of historical data sets that encourage data-driven inquiries into the past, while integrating data, computational science methods into historical research.

T. Arun Raj, director NMMA, Noida: Talked on “strategies for stopping illicit trafficking of antiquities.” Perhaps, next to Pramod Joglekar, he directly discussed the issue with examples. He pointed out how Alexander Cunningham used to travel on a donkey visiting archaeological and ancient places for collecting details. The ASI at present listed 3697 monuments as protected. He pointed out how the Delhi Iron pillar was brought to the present place and Rajendra Cholas brought sculptures as “war trophy” to Thanjavur. Alexander Rae and others carried on excavations even before the formation of ASI and collected many objects. He left some at Egmore Museum and others were taken to London. Even now, the ASI is struggling to deal and store the smuggled artefacts returned back to India. In Trichy, the sculptures have been lying there for more than 20 years, which were recovered. Though HR & CE recorded more than 36,000 temples and quantified 9,000 bronzes many others appear to be not accounted. However, for the export of antiquities, thousands of applications are filed with the ASI, Chennai and they are pending. Nealy more than 20,000 applications have been pending, because, there are no expert persons to identify the objects mentioned in the applications as “less than 100 years” or not. Thus, the crucial problem comes here. Once the certificate is given, the antique object would go out of India legally. He pointed out that unlike Sri Lanka, India does not have “Heritage Police,” and hence, the illegal export / smuggling out of the antiquities have been going on. He also pointed out as how a lesson has been included in the CBSE syllabus to adopt a monument nearby school, so that awareness is created not only among the school children, but also the public living surrounding the monument.

Dr Charuta Kulkarni, IIT, Madras: Talking about INQUA Database on Global South[2], she explained related issues. Stemming from the PAGES-INQUA supported early-career researcher workshop on “Past Socio–Environmental Systems (PASES)” (pastglobalchanges.org/calendar/26972) in 2020, the INQUA-funded project “The whole is not the sum of the parts: building a synthesis database of past human–environmental systems in the Global South (pSESYNTH)” has initiated research collaborations among paleoscientists from, and/or working on, the Global South and other underrepresented regions of the world (e.g. Australia, Southeast Europe). Pursuing the Integrated, Coordinated, Open, and Networked (ICON) approach (Koren et al. 2022), the overarching goal of pSESYNTH is to establish, articulate and strengthen regional, interdisciplinary teams for studying past socio–environmental systems of the Global South, and to build the first multi-disciplinary paleo database representing its regions.

pSESYNTH primarily focuses on the Holocene (the last 11.7 kyr) because: (i) there is greater spatial availability and better chronological controls of the datasets compared to the Pleistocene, and (ii) the Holocene is characterized by a progressive degree of anthropogenic influence over landscapes, offering ways to explore the evolution of diverse socio–environmental systems. Under the pSESYNTH framework, linking proxies of environmental change with climatic signals and societal processes (e.g. subsistence strategies, growth rates, migrations) will provide baselines to pose and test multiple hypotheses for explaining the trajectories of socio–environmental systems. Specifically, pSESYNTH activities are being developed around three main objectives.

To explore drivers of past environmental change combining a diverse set of proxy information, organized into three themes: paleoecology (e.g. pollen, charcoal, diatoms), paleoclimatology (e.g. biomarkers, stable isotopes, varves, numerical simulations), and archaeology (e.g. radiocarbon dates, phytoliths, archaeobotanical remains, material culture).

2) To quantitatively analyze the links among paleoecology, paleoclimatology and archaeology, with an emphasis on research questions that can be generic across the Global South (e.g. are there connections, or commonalities, between colonial legacies and the evolution of socio–environmental systems in the Global South?) or specific to each subregion (e.g. at what spatial and temporal scales were human–environmental systems coupled or uncoupled to climatic fluctuations?).

3) To share the outputs and products of the project in the form of a database that meets the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) principles (Wilkinson et al. 2016). pSESYNTH participants will capitalize on existing single- and multi-themed databases (e.g. Neotoma, NOAA, PANGAEA, p3k14c, ArchaeoGlobe) in complementing their data contributions in the novel Global South database. Together, the FAIR–ICON principles will underpin the database organization and will ensure geographic coverage, comparability, and accessibility for time-series data synthesis, which is crucial for mainstreaming paleoscience research from the Global South.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

04-11-2023

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[1] T. S. Sridhar (ed.), The Cholas Bronzes – 1000^th anniversary of Thanjavur Big Temple celebrations Sept 25^th to Oct.4^th 2010, The Tamilnadu State Archaeology Department, Chennai, 2011, pp.12-13.

[2] Charuta Kulkarni and others, pSESYNTH project: Community mobilization for a multi-disciplinary paleo database of the Global South, https://pastglobalchanges.org/publications/pages-magazines/pages-magazine/137240

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Teaching of Science and Technology to the students of History or History to the students of science and technology?

Utility of the subjects and their immediate usage to humanity: Just like tourism, tourism management etc., “History of science and technology”  has been discovered, created and covered under the syllabus and offered as an “elective” subject to the postgraduate students of various disciplines. “History syllabus” has also been formulated to be taught to the students of professional courses like science and technologies, medicine, commerce, management etc., thus, much hype is created with the syllabus to reach and teach history to others.

• No teacher of those subjects proposed such a scheme that they would go and teach “science and technology” to them. 
• So why such exigency arises and for what purpose etc., have also to be analyzed.
• By going through the syllabus, it is clear that the students of professional courses do not gain much by reading such subjects.
• In every subject, mathematics, physics, chemistry, economics, commerce, accounting etc., the origin, progress and development and also the present and future status and scope of them have already been included in the syllabus and taught.
• If fact, their subjects have been and are updated and therefore, such subjects lead to innovative inventions that are immediately converted into parts, accessories, spares, gadgets, appliances, tools and so on useful to humanity.

History of Science and Technology: To write, read, teach and learn “History of Science and Technology”, one need not learn the core subject history, but, the history students cannot understand the “History of Science and Technology,” unless, they are taught from the fundamentals.

• Definitely, all non-history subjects are taught with its origin, which is nothing but history of that subject or perhaps more than that.
• That is how mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology at one side, and commerce, accounts, management, factory physics, industrial chemistry, bionics, mnemonics[1] etc., on the other side are taught in the schools and universities.
•  Though more and more science and technological subjects increase, there is demand for admission.
• However, recently, the subject “History of Science and Technology” is included for the students of history, archaeology, anthropology, numismatics and related subjects with their own formulated syllabus.
• But, they are taught only as history and not as the “History of Science and Technology.”

BCE 5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,5 CE or BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE which is correct?: The scientific study of the origin of the subject “History of Science and Technology”, has been different from the simple subject of “History of Science and Technology, for science students. In fact, under such expected conditions, the history teachers cannot teach the “History of Science and Technology”, to them.

• The concept of “zero” and infinity, decimal number system, calendar, planetary system, etc., have been perplexing even for science students, and therefore, how the history students read and understand them, is not known.
• In fact, for chronology, studying eras, dating and other exercises, history teachers have to understand these concepts. 
• Yet, no history expert is worried about “0” year in between BCE 5,4,3,2,1,1,2,3,4,5 CE years, while computing.
• Why the Roman numerals – I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X did not have “0” is also not known to them!
• Why the Fibonacci series does not start with “0,” (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc.,) they cannot explain.

These are given only for illustrative purposes and are not exhaustive. Therefore, without knowing “o,” how history teachers would teach about, chronology and related historical developments.

Historical time is linear or cyclic, if “history repeats”!: In science and technology, anything linear or cyclic is understood easily and applied practically, but, in history, nowadays, some historians claim that history is linear and not cyclic. However, having claimed, they have not been able to define exactly how the history has been linear, when “history repeats itself”[2]. Just because, historian has decided take the expression “linear,” he cannot make history “linear.”[3] Again such expertise and elite historians do not bother about the axes and the origin, the zero point. Not only X and Y axes, even Z axis has the other side also.  How then, historians visualize the –ve axes and interpret historical events. Of course, they are totally not bothered as to whether it is 2D or 3D, yet, they prefer to use such terminology in history and historiography.

Using scientific terminology is different from actually working scientifically: Just by using certain terms and expressions, scientific, scientific temper, linear, dynamic, static, etc., at one side and heuristic[4], holistic, euphemistic, epistemological, on the other side, history cannot become scientific or technological, as none of the historical hypotheses, theories and concepts can be tested in the laboratory.

• Earlier, historians used to claim with pride that they should have object in mind, objective mentality and objectivity in dealing with historical facts.
• Now, they assert that they need not have such standards (objectivity).
• Ten historians can write history about the same “object,” and all the ten histories become histories of the object!
• But, science says one is one only; 1+1=2 only, all have accepted universally for thousands of years and it continues.
• Historians and history teachers cannot say in history about anything within a year, 10 years, 100 years… in the same way again and again.
• In India itself,
  • grandfather / grandmother read one history,
  • father / mother read another history,
  • son / daughter read yet another history and
  • now grandson / granddaughter reads still-yet another history!
• This type of history is found in the case of the –
  • Grandfather – Chandragupta Maurya c.324/31 – 297 BCE
  • Father – Bindusara – c.297-273 BCE
  • Grandson – Asoka – c.268-232 BCE

Thus, within three generations, grandfather and father were prehistoric, illiterate and unhistorical also, wheras, the grandson was historic and literate! Again, the grandfather was a Jain, the father Hindu and the grandson a Buddhist! A perfect secular model family!

• In India, there had / have been millions of practices, procedures, and standards followed in day to day life for more than 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 YBP and more. They had / have  and are historical only, unlike their “histories” produced or manufactured by the European Company writers and the 1947-Indian history writers.
• Once a history writer becomes ideological, then, no two historians accept and history in India, it always becomes some sort of TV-debate where four persons come and talk about the same subject in four different ways! They come together only to differ from each other and not to come to any conclusion.

Blind Men and an Elephant: The history writers of the European Companies always mention this “cock and bull story”[5] to denigrate Indians for their acumen[6].  Not only non-Indians have read the sources properly, understood the concept and interpret such stories, but also the listeners, readers and others to verify the authenticity of the stories floated about themselves. The irony has been, this “cock and bull ……….story” has been and is still included in the syllabus and the naïve and gullible teachers go on teach and our students read and appreciate the “idiocy” – stupidity, absurdity and silliness of Indians, and believe that they (the Europeans) only taught Indians how to count, learn and dress properly. More and more “Mayos”[7] have been created to spread such “maya,” and when they would be liberated and brought to light from such darkness[8] is not known.

Any subject is offered as an elective, choice or forced: Again teaching history to other disciplines commerce, economics, management, medicine etc., is different from the teaching of “History of Science and Technology” to history students themselves. Just because, history subject is losing its scope in the academics, the history teachers cannot introduce some syllabus and try to impose the same old stuff on the non-history students.

• The utility, benefit and value of the subject also come into play, when any student selects any subject voluntarily, as an elective or for some other reason.
• The students of the “History of Science and Technology” are interested in progress, development and growth in their studies, research and further pursuits.
• Therefore, they may not be interested in what the dynasties fought with each other, rulers invaded other territories or autocrats made the people suffer.
• Even the social, communal, religious, societal, and other aspects and related issues are also irrelevant to them, as long as they divide people based on any factor.

The utility value of the subject: Ultimately, when job, assignment and employment are decided on the certificates and diplomas received, yet, the application of the learned subject in the field decides the fate of the employee, worker or staff.

• A fitter, electrician, plumber and any other technician after getting certificates, has been ready to work in the field, as he has to carry out his job, as otherwise, he will be sent out immediately on the first day, when he is found that he is not able tp work in his field, in spite of having diploma / certificates in his trade or many certificates including other disciplines. “A jack of all trades but master of none”.
• So also a professionally qualified engineer or doctor or any other expert.
• “If you know the job, come and join immediately,” that type of policy is followed today, walk-in interview, selection and appointment order.
• All the certificates and diplomas come thereafter, just for verification.
• If you have 10 certificates, diplomas and degrees in one discipline or 10 different disciplines, but, you cannot work properly, you will be fired, because, the employers want the work to go on.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-08-2023

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[1] Mnemonics is the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory, A mnemonic device (or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding.

[2] Historic recurrence is the repetition of similar events in history. The concept of historic recurrence has variously been applied to overall human history (e.g., to the rises and falls of empires), to repetitive patterns in the history of a given polity, and to any two specific events which bear a striking similarity. Hypothetically, in the extreme, the concept of historic recurrence assumes the form of the Doctrine of Eternal Recurrence, which has been written about in various forms since antiquity and was described in the 19^th century by Heinrich Heine and Friedrich Nietzsche. While it is often remarked that “history repeats itself”, in cycles of less than cosmological duration this cannot be strictly true. In this interpretation of recurrence, as opposed perhaps to the Nietzschean interpretation, there is no metaphysics. Recurrences take place due to ascertainable circumstances and chains of causality.

[3]  In the case of electricity, electronics, computers, digital technology etc., the electric pulse is sinusoidal, digitized to square-shaped pulses and so on. All such processes cannot be brought under any “linear” explanation or interpretation of history.

[4] A heuristic is a mental shortcut commonly used to simplify problems and avoid cognitive overload. Heuristics are part of how the human brain evolved and is wired, allowing individuals to quickly reach reasonable conclusions or solutions to complex problems.

[5] Cock and bull story, far-fetched and fanciful story or tale of highly dubious validity produced by the British county hoteliers / inns to attract their customers.

[6] The Buddhist text Tittha Sutta, Udāna 6.4, Khuddaka Nikaya, contains one of the earliest versions of the story. The Tittha Sutta is dated to around c. 500 BCE, during the lifetime of the Buddha. An alternative version of the parable describes sighted men, experiencing a large statue on a dark night, or feeling a large object while being blindfolded. They then describe what it is they have experienced. In its various versions, it is a parable that has crossed between many religious traditions and is part of Jain, Hindu and Buddhist texts of 1st millennium CE or before. The story also appears in 2^nd millennium Sufi and Baháʼí Faith lore. The tale later became well known in Europe, with 19^th century American poet John Godfrey Saxe creating his own version as a poem, with a final verse that explains that the elephant is a metaphor for God, and the various blind men represent religions that disagree on something no one has fully experienced. The story has been published in many books for adults and children, and interpreted in a variety of ways.

[7] Katherine Mayo, an American lady  and also reportedly a historian wrote a book Mother India (1927) became  a polemical book as it contained many narratives of  grudge, hate and vengeance against Indian – society, religion and culture. Indians do not know any such book has been written about American or European society, religion and culture.

[8] Mohammedan or Mughal court historians always dub that the kafirs (non-believers, non-Mohammedans) of Hindustan were in the jahallia (in the darkness) and they were trying to show nur (light) through jihad (holy war) with their revealed book (al-kitabiya), as the kafirs do not are any revealed scriptures / book..

The question of Tamil numeral, number, number system and mathematics (1)

The question of Tamil numeral, number, number system and mathematics (1)

The oldest stone inscription featuring a numeral is the Tamil-Brahmi cave inscription from Tondur, near Gingee, in Villupuram district[1]: When I was preparing for a write-up on the Indian mathematician Ramanujan[2], I came across the news-item, “Ancient numbers in the land of Ramanujan” in “The Hindu,” contributed by Iravatham Mahadevan and M.V.Bhaskar. Though, it appeared in December 2011, as it has bearing on the Tamil numerals, it is taken up for discussion. It started with an interesting question, “How were numerals written in ancient times in the Tamil country, the land of Srinivasa Ramanujan, ‘The Man Who Knew Infinity’?”. Then, it went on – “Literary sources in Tamil mention numbers only in words. However, we do have ancient literary references specifically mentioning eN (‘numeral’) as distinguished from ezhuttu (‘letter of the alphabet,’ for example, Tolkappiyam 655.4, Tirukkural 392). But as palm leaf manuscripts decay with time and hardly last for more than 200 years, we have to turn to durable stone or pottery inscriptions to know what the ancient Tamil numerals looked like. We illustrate two of them here, one from each class (Figs. 1 & 2). The oldest stone inscription featuring a numeral is the Tamil-Brahmi cave inscription from Tondur, near Gingee, in Villupuram district, assigned to about the 3rd century C.E. (Fig. 1)[3]. The numeral 3 engraved at the end of a short two-line inscription in the cave is represented by three horizontal parallel lines[4]. The inscription records that the village of Agalur gifted three stone beds in the cave chiselled by Mosi. The gift was made to the Jaina monks resident in the cave. The village still exists with the same name Agalur, near Tondur, both of which still have sizeable Jaina populations. The numeral 3 has the same form as in contemporary Prakrit inscriptions in the Brahmi script in North India”. Thus, the learned writers have not informed the fact that neither the language was Tamil nor the script Tamil-Brahmi.

A number on the Pottery inscription: Then, they had taken the Alagankulam broken pottery bit, “A well-preserved pottery inscription from Alagankulam near Rameswaram has only the numeral incised in fairly large size (Fig. 2). The inscription is dated to the 1st or 2nd century C.E. The number is read 408, from right to left, following the ancient convention of reading the digits from the right (ankaanaam vaamato gatih). The first digit at right looking like the cross is the symbol for 4. It is followed by the symbol for 100 (resembling the Brahmi letter sa) and the last symbol at left is 8, incised in reversed direction. As there is no accompanying text, we do not know the significance of the number. The find is still interesting for the absence of the place-value system. The convention of using symbols for 10, 100, and 1000 in expressing the higher numerals was current in Tamil Nadu until the advent of printing and the adoption of the international form of Indian numerals with place-value system. The pottery inscription is also good evidence for widespread literacy, including numeracy, in the ancient Tamil country”.

What the news-item reveal: Iravatham Mahadevan and  M. V. Bhaskar have very carefully worded, but, they could not be free from their apologetic approach to interpret that the numerals found were Tamil.

1. Literary sources in Tamil mention numbers only in words, not in numerals.
2. They accept that – The numeral 3 has the same form as in contemporary Prakrit inscriptions in the Brahmi script in North India.
3. The oldest stone inscription featuring a numeral is the Tamil-Brahmi cave inscription from Tondur – the script is neither Tamil nor the number is Tamil.
4. Had the Tamil numeral was written, it should have been “௩ (3)” and not “≡”.
5. The Jains used Sanskrit / Prakrut and the Brahmi script.
6. In the same way, coming to the pottery script, the claim that, “The number is read 408, from right to left, following the ancient convention of reading the digits from the right (ankaanaam vaamato gatih)” is incorrect, because, Tamil is written from left to right.
7. अङ्कानां वामतो गतिः Nowhere such rule has been prescribed in the Tamil literature. And it is a wonder that, that they should take the help of “Aryan dictum” to prove the number was Tamil!
8. Moreover, those three numerals are not Tamil, but, Sanskrit and it has to be mentioned as “Indian.”
9. Had the Jains of the ancient Tamizhagam been Tamils or Tamil speaking and knowing, they would have inscribed “௪௦௮” and not in Brahmi – India numerals.
10. They accept that – The find is still interesting for the absence of the place-value system[5]. The convention of using symbols for 10, 100, and 1000 in expressing the higher numerals was current in Tamil Nadu until the advent of printing and the adoption of the international form of Indian numerals with the place-value system.
11. The Indian number system is called a place value system because the value of a digit depends on its position, or place, in a number. The number 408 has a different value than the number 804. Even though they use the same digits, their value is different because of the different placement of the 4 and the 0 and the 8.
12. And the Tamils never knew 0 and used till modern times.

With all these facts, they had cleverly manipulated and it was published in “The Hindu.” And the pro-Tamil enthusiastic bloggers and social media activists have been so happy to spread it with the claims that Tamil only invented decimal number system including zero.

The position of Tamil numerals: Now with the Keeladai dating, the antiquity of Tamil literature goes back to c.580 BCE.  Coming to the Tamil numerals, the following facts are noted and listed:

1. The “Sangam literature,” Ettuttogai and Pattuppattu do not mention any Tamil numeral[6].
2. The post-Tamil Sangam literature Padinenkizhkanakku and Imperum Kappiyangal do not record numerals in the Tamil language.
3. The fragmentary inscriptions [mentioned as Tamil-Brahmi] do not mention any numeral in Tamil till the 9^th-10^th centuries CE.
4. In Uttiramerur inscription of Partiva Varman dated to 10^th cent CE, a lengthy number is mentioned.
5. Then, in the inscription dated to 1204 CE of Kulutunga Cholan, some fractions are seen to be mentioned denoting to ¼, ½ and ⅛.
6. The 13^thCE poetry notes eight and quarter in words as ௮ = 8 and வ = ¼, i.e, the expressions, “Avalalkshnam” and “ettekal” are equated to bring out the meaning[7].
7. Therefore, from the period of “Sangam” to 9^th – 10^th centuries, no numeral in Tamil was used to represent numbers[8].
8. The fact is that the “Tamils” never had any numerals at all to be identified as numbers!
9. The notation of writing Tamil numerals has been as follows: ௦ (0), ௧ (1), ௨ (2), ௩ (3), ௪ (4), ௫ (5), ௬ (6), ௭ (7), ௮ (8), ௯ (9), ௰ (10)
10. They were widely used in the inscriptions from 10t-11^th centuries in the inscriptions.
11. Only “Kanakkathhikaram,” a Tamil mathematical work mentions all together[9]. Its author has been one Kari, Kari Nayanar and the work is dated to 15^thCE, considering the internal evidences[10]. He acknowledges that he composed the work only translating material from the Sanskrit works available during his time[11]. In other words, it can be said that for the science and technological works, Sanskrit works were used and hence, the common Indian numbers were followed for practical purposes.

Ironically, with the fragmentary inscriptions, the “Tamil researchers” have so far tried to prove Indian numerals as their numerals, as if the “Tamils” discovered separately.

Interestingly, the number 0 was never used as a numeral, but, in word. This usage came during the medieval period.

When the schools of mathematics and astronomy were existing in Cheranadu, why not in Tamizhagam?: R Champakalakshmi[12] virtually surveyed the secondary sources, but noted, “The educational system of this period was not organised institutionally, but was taught from kakkayar, āśiriyar, āśār, uvāttiyar) toö teacher (ka student in private collecting a group of students i.e. palli The main subjects taught and passed on by memory and also written down on Palm Leaf manuscripts were Grammar, Poetics and Mathematics and its ancillary Astronomy.” P. P. Divakaran, makes some passing references that Kerala was sanskritised so that the Mathematics and astronomy flourished there as Nila / Kerala school[13]. Al most, all researchers on the history of science and technology or Mathematics and Astronomy of South India or Sangam period have been perplexed about the absence of any “school” existing in Tamizhagam, when, the Kerala school was functioning well attracting many professors and mathematicians. Thus, a question arises as to, “When the schools of mathematics and astronomy were existing in Cheranadu, why not in Tamizhagam?” Who prevented or opposed such a system in the Tamizagam or the existing schools were shifted there.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

14-05-2020

[1] The Hindu, Ancient numbers in the land of Ramanujan, Iravatham Mahadevan, M. V. Bhaskar, CHENNAI:, DECEMBER 29, 2011 01:28 IST’UPDATED: DECEMBER 29, 2011 01:30 IST

[2] K.V. Ramakrishna Rao, Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920): The Mathematical genius of Erode, who got PhD from Cambridge, but, ignored by Tamilnadu!, April.26, 2020. https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2020/04/26/srinivasa-ramanujan-1887-1920-the-mathematical-genius-of-erode-who-got-phd-from-cambridge-but-ignored-by-tamilnadu/

[3] Tamil-Brahmi cave inscription from Tondur (3rd century C.E.). Photo Courtesy: Central Institute of Classical Tamil, Chennai | Photo Credit: HANDOUT_E_MAIL.

[4] https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/ancient-numbers-in-the-land-of-ramanujan/article2755518.ece

[5] A place value system is one in which the position of a digit in a number determines its value. In the standard system, called base ten, each place represents ten times the value of the place to its right.

[6] Sathyabhama Kameswaran, Kanakkathikaram (Part – II), Thanjavur Maharaja Sarboji Saraswati Mahal Library, Publication No.388, Thanjavur, 1998.

[7]  The expressions ‘எட்டேகால் லட்சணமே’  and ‘அவலட்சணமே’ were used by the poets Ottakkuutthar, Pugazhendi and Avvaiyar of 13^th cent.CE.

[8] Tamil lexicons, Nikandus and other works too have been silent about the origin, though, tried to give the list of numbers ets., as usual.

[9] Sathyabhama Kameswaran, Kanakkathikaram (A compiled work), Thanjavur Maharaja Sarboji Saraswati Mahal Library, Publication No.504, Thanjavur, 2007.

[10] M. Arunachalam

[11] “As the firefly before the Sun, I decided to present the mathematical work of the Aryans that is in Sanskrit, in Tamil. Therefore, the experts need not criticize me,” he noted in the introduction. Kanakkathikaam 1, Payiram, poem.16. He repeated the same in the next poem also, no.17.

Kari Nayanar, Kanakkathikaram, Tirunelveli Saiva Siddhanta Nurpathippuk Kazhagam, Chennai, 1958.

[12] R Champakalakshmi, In Search of the Beginnings and Growth of Knowledge Production in Tamil, Indian Journal of History of Science, 51.1 (2016) 118-124; felying upon Subrahmanian, 1966, pp.326–29.

[13] P. P. Divakaran, The Mathematics of India: Concepts, Methods, Connections, Springer and Hindudthan Book Agency, New Delhi, 2018.