The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, IRS (Retd.,)

Guest Faculty and Research scholar,

Department of Ancient History and Archaeology,

University of Madras,  Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Cell: 98402 92065; e- mail: kopallerao@yahoo.co.uk

Stone memorial, rock memorial for the dead: The stones erected whether they were with or without inscriptions and sculptures to commemorate the death or dead persons particularly that of warriors, fighters or soldiers are considered as Hero stones.

• The origin of the commemorative stones are mentioned with different names and expressions – Nadukal, Virakal, Hero-stone, Satikal, Govardhan pillars, Chaya-stambhas, stele, Jaya-stamba, Kirti-stambha etc., in India.
• They are also traced back to megalithic burial practices[1], where the dead were buried or cremated with their favourite goods. Where, the heroes are found to fighting with tiger, horses, elephants, camels etc. Battle field scenes on the land and sea[2] have also been depicted.  
• Considering the vast area of India of the ancient period, the location of such sites spread from Central Asia from the west to Cambodia in the east and down south to Sri Lanka.
• During the last 5500 YBP period, many changes have been taken place and therefore, the available material evidence at present and the accounts recorded in the secondary sources have to be relied upon.
• A big or identifiable stone of weight is placed at the place, where the last rites were conducted, so that the spot could be identified, remembered and yearly rites conducted.
• Irrespective of place, culture and belief system, such tradition, and liturgical practices appeared to have been taking place in the world[3].

Hero-stone, memorial stone or stele in the context: For a comparative study, the western practices are also should be taken into consideration. In the Western context, a stele or occasionally stela, is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than its width, erected in the ancient world as a monument. The surfaces of the stele often have text, ornamentation, or both and they are inscribed, carved in relief, or painted. A traditional Western gravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words “stele” and “stelae” are most consistently applied in archaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt, China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America. Incidentally, India is not mentioned here. A comprehensive and integrated study of the memorial stones is made, the connection among them could be noted. As this is depended upon the religious beliefs like soul, transmigration of soul, life after death, rebirth, karma and other related issues, generally, such belief system points to the East. It is well known that Hindu, Buddhist and Jains believed in them. As Buddhism was dominant during the first centuries and spread far and wide throughout the world, such ideas were also spread along with them[4]. The Pythagorean, Aesop’s fables[5] and other connections have already been accepted by the scholars[6]. Through Pythagoras, the concept soul, transmigration of soul etc., were transmitted to the west[7]. Thus, the commonality can be noted in the global perspective, in the memorial stone erection culture also.

Stone usage continues from Paleolithic to 21st century culture: Stone, forms of stone, stone structures, stone implements etc., have been a common feature of Indians used even today in 21st century. The grinding, crushing, pounding and milling processes are carried on by stones only, but with various forms and fitted with mechanical, electro-mechanical systems for mechanization. Domestic electrical appliances like – Mixies and grinders have been changing their names, sizes, shapes, colours and technology (mechanical, electrical, electronic), but stone cannot be replaced with any other thing[8]. Grinding characteristics of raw and parboiled rice were evaluated in various wet grinding systems, namely, mixer grinder, stone grinder and colloid mill[9]. The rotation of the stone is made vertical or horizontal with one or two or more rotating stones, but, stones continue to form part and parcel of such Domestic electrical appliances. Now, miniaturized kitchen stone tools are also made and sold in the market. Thus, the usage of stone has been part and parcel of man since the Paleolithic age.

Lithic form and size may vary, but purpose did not change: Coming to burial, the other forms are studied. A menhir, standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone also comes under this category. Here, menhir = man + hir = man + tall = tall man or man of repute, thus, a person did something marvellous and thus to be remembered. In the European context, they are called as cromlech (ring of standing stones), dolmen[10] (type of single chamber megalith tomb), henge (type of Neolithic earth work), stone circle etc., conveying and denoting the same depending upon the language and area. As the Paleolithic man and society also believed that man had rebirth and he would be reborn etc., they arranged such stone structures aligning with the cardinal points. Or the sacrificial days had to be remembered once or twice in a year and thus, the near and dear used to come there and pay homage to their fathers, forefathers etc.  In Buddhist rituals, stone circles were used that is pointed out below. As these structures continued to exist for many millions or thousands of years, they would have been subjected to disturbances. Particularly, the grave goods would have been taken away by the categories of tomb raiders and grave looters. Whatever left was discovered by the local village people and archaeologists and studied by the researchers.

For whom the stones were erected?: Researchers on Hero-stones have studied about the cause of erecting memorial stones for the people as follows[11]:

• people who died to protect their livestock from theft; while retrieving it after the attack
• people involved themselves were killed in cattle raiding
• people who died while defending their community and ruler from external attack; people died on the onslaught of a stronghold
• people who died to defend women and children
• people devoured by wild animals, most commonly tigers;
• people who freed the village from the threat of wild animals and died thereafter,
• people who died after a snake bite
• people who committed religious suicide
• women who died in pregnancy or childbirth / suicide victims.
• The warriors / soldiers who sacrificed their lives for saving their villages, towns, state, or territories.

For all these categories, hero-stones / memorial stones were erected and venerated to glorify their sacrifice.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] The Megalithic burials have pits or stone chambers or rock-cut chambers or urns or sarcophagi, etc., externally marked by either one or a combination of more than one of the features like cairn-heap, cairn-circle, stone-circle, kodakkal, topikkal, menhir, etc., and some of the burial types like dolmen are partly buried and partly above the ground and pit burials and urn burials, in some cases, do not have any surface markers. At several sites monuments such as menhirs, kodakkals  and dolmens are without any artefactual remains and appear to be symbolic.

[2] The hero stones kept at the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, Goa (12^th century CE) and Eksar (11^th century CE) in Mumbai have the depiction of naval warfare. The Old Goa hero stones belong to the Goa Kadambas who ruled Goa from 950-1300 CE. The Eksar hero stones were depicted during the reign of king Bhoja of Malwa in 1020 CE.

Tripati, Sila. Ships on hero stones from the west coast of India,  International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35.1 (2006): 88-96.

[3] Construction of tomb, tomb worship etc., of the day have not changed much with all modern day embellishments, as the stone parts of the tomb are manufactured in the factories with sophisticated machinery.

[4] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[5] Aesop’s Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE and they were imitated from the Panchatantra stories of India.

[6] Richrd von Garbe,  The Philosophy of Ancient India (2nd ed.; Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1899).

…………………………, India and Christianity: An Investigation of Religious and Historical Connections, Tübingen, Germany: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1914.

[7] Arthur B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads, ed. C. R. Lanman nHarvard Oriental Series,” Vol. XXXII; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925).

[8]  The manufacturers of mixies and grinders of different categories have R & D sections, where research has been going on about the usage of stones, their sizes and shapes, weight etc. The  body might have been changed with metal sheet, plastic, fibre-glass and other materials for cost-effective, the stones cannot be replaced.

[9] Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., &  Subramanian, R. (2008). Grinding characteristics and batter quality of rice in different wet grinding systems. Journal of food engineering, 88(4), 499-506.

[10] A dolmen  or portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or “table”. Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone “skeleton”.

[11] Trinco, Letizia. Heroes Beyond the Texts: Sacrifice, Death, and After life, in the Iconography of Southern Maharashtra’s Hero-Stones.” Indologica Taurinensia 40 (2014): 341-363.

The origin, development and importance of Hero-stones in India – special lecture by Dr Poongundran organized by the Indological Research Institute (IRI) (2)

The origin, development and importance of Hero-stones in India – special lecture by Dr Poongundran organized by the Indological Research Institute (IRI) (2)

As Dr Poongundran lectured in Tamil, the details have been translated to reach the non-Tamil readers and thus, the details gathered from the media – public domain available have been compiled and added here. Though, some details could be repetitive, the importance could be noted.

How discovery of the Hero-stones proceeded: The discovery of the three inscribed hero stones, which date back to the 3^rd century BCE, at Pulimankombai in Theni district in 2006, is now a pictorial document along with all other estampages of the memorial stones documented in the book Nadukal Kalvettukkal (Inscriptions from hero stones), authored by eminent archaeologist R. Poongundran, former assistant director, Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department[1]. The memorial stones which display inscriptions in the ancient Tamil Brahmi script throw light on the literacy of the ancient Tamil society. “The three hero stones were discovered by the staff and students from the Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology of Tamil University, Thanjavur. The memorials were, for the first time, spotted in the village Pulimankombai, when a piece of land was tilled for agriculture,” informs Poongundran. 

References from the books of Dr Poongundran: Besides the three hero stones discovered at Pulimankombai, plenty of other ones documented in Poongundran’s book, stand testimony to the idea of ancient Tamils considering cattle as their wealth. The book speaks of the hero stones erected in memory of the warriors, who died in seizing the enemy’s cattle and recovering theirs from the foe. The seizing of an enemy’s cattle as a declaration of war was called Aakolpoosal in classical Tamil. “The two themes Vetchi (the act of seizing enemy’s cattle) and Karanthai (the act of recovering the cattle from the enemy) were described in Tolkapiyam, the available ancient treatise of Tamil. Besides, many songs in Sangam Tamil literature speak on erecting the nadukal in memory of the warriors who died in the act of seizing the enemy’s cattle and recovering theirs from the enemy” informs Poongundran. One of the three ancient hero stones discovered at Pulimankombai informs in its Tamil Brahmi inscription that the memorial was erected to honour a warrior named ‘Pedu Theeyan Andhavan’, who was killed during his attempt in seizing his enemy’s cattle in a village called ‘Koodal’. 

Tamil literary references: Reminding the origin of worshipping ancestors as family deities, the 335^th song in Purananuru, a Sangam period work, says that there were no other Gods other than the slain warriors depicted in the hero stones. Sangam age poet Mangudi Kizhar describes the hero stones thus in his lyric: 

There are no gods, other than the

memorial stones of heroes who blocked enemies,

killed their elephants with lifted, bright tusks

and got killed, to be worshipped with rice showerings!

Aavur Mulankizhar, another Sangam age poet, while writing on the death of his benefactor Malli Kizhan Kaariyathi, informs :

… now that he has become

a memorial stone, that young hero with a victorious spear, who

killed the cattle raiders…… he returned wearing fragrant ‘karanthai’ garlands that hang

down like udders of cows.

(It was a tradition in the ancient Tamil society to wear garlands stringed of vetchi flowers when going off on cattle raids and wear garlands of karanthai flowers while returning). “The language used in most hero stones was in vernacular. Besides, there are also a few memorial stones which contain the information on the deceased in the traditional Tamil verse forms Aasiriyappa and Venba” says Poongundran.

Hero-stones for the marginalized: Hero stones were crafted for the common, marginalised people in the northern belt of Tamilnadu when most of them died trying to protect their cattle, considered a major wealth, said Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department former deputy director Dr R Poongundran[2]. He was speaking at the seminar on ‘Thondaimandalam, history, archaeology, art and folk traditions’, organised by the friends of heritage sites in Chennai[3]. Hero stones in this region were usually installed by relatives or younger warriors. They erected the stones in memory of these people, who sacrificed themselves for the sake of society and also worshipped them. In Tamil Nadu, there is a hero stone even for a dog that died in a battle along with its master, with its name inscribed on it. Another stone was erected for a fowl, he said. Poongundran said the practice of erecting hero stones continued till the 12^th century CE.

The Hero-stones erected for common people also for the services rendered: Following Keezhadi excavations, where artefacts belonging to the sixth century were discovered recently, two hero stones belonging to the fifth century were discovered at Desoor village near Vandavasi on Tuesday. A team of officials from  Tiruvannamalai Historical Research Centre discovered as many as five stones, out of which two belong to the fifth century and others, to the 10th century. The two stones, which are five feet in height and 1,500 years old, have inscriptions in the ‘Tamil language’. Tahsildar (HS) S Balamurugan told Express, “The scripts indicated that they belonged to the fifth century.” Based on information given by a revenue officer, the team conducted research and found the stones near a dilapidated structure. Balamurugan said[4], “The stones were found intact, and the locals were performing poojas. The other three stones discovered in the same place belonged to the 10th century. Upon closer examination, we found a stone had two images of a father and son, which is a first-of-its-kind in the district.” According to historian, R Poongundran[5], “Hero stones were erected in memory of Kotrambha Kizhar and his son Seelan.”

The Hero-stones of the Pallava period: Archaeologists have discovered four hero stones dating back to the Pallava dynasty, at Vathalmalai in Noolahalli panchayat[6]. The hero stones were placed in honour of people who had lost their lives when fighting against robbers and defending their village[7]. The stones were also engraved with ‘vatteluttu’, an ancient South Indian alphabet. Speaking to TOI, Kumaravel Ramasamy, secretary, Yakkai Heritage Trust (YHT) said, “Of the four hero stones, one stone is from the Mahendravarman Pallava period (600 CE-630 CE), while two stones are from the Eswara Varma Pallava period (705 CE – 710 CE). The last stone is unidentifiable as it is damaged.” He said each stone depicted two heroes who lost their lives while fighting to save their village. The names of the kings, Mahendravarman Pallava and Eswara Varma Pallava, were engraved in vatelluthu letters. A team of archaeological experts, led by YHT secretary Kumaravel, and comprising president Sudhakar Nalliappan, Chandran, Vignesh Varman, and Sathish Kumar, found the stones in the first week of September. They had sent details of the hero stones to R Poongundran, former deputy director, the archaeology department, Chennai, for further studies. Poongundran said vatteluttu inscriptions are usually found only in towns and villages. “It is very rare to discover such hero stones in Vathalmalai, which is a tribal region.” He added that the heroes engraved on the stones were depicted carrying bows, arrows and swords. “They are shown continuing to fight even after arrows have pierced their bodies,” Poongundran added.

A woman installing Nadukal for her husband: A hero stone at Semmayagoundenpalayam in the district might not be known to the outside world, but it has tales to tell from as early as the eighth century[8]. Usually hero stones are built by a group of people belonging to a hamlet or by male relatives of a local hero[9]. But this one has been installed by a woman in memory of her husband who killed a leopard that strayed into the hamlet for killing cattle. A hero stone at Semmaya.gounden.palayam in the district might not be known to the outside world, but it has tales to tell from as early as the eighth century. People in the vicinity have been offering pujas to the stone from time immemorial with a belief that arthritis and few other ailments related to the veins would be cured.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

05-05-2024

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[1] Documenting Tales behind Slain Heroes, By B. Meenakshi Sundaram, Jul 26, 2021;

https://simplicity.in/app/articledetail.php?aid=1286

[2] Times of India, Hero stones established for men from marginalised sections in Tamil Nadu, TNN / Updated: May 8, 2023, 09:58 IST

[3] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/hero-stones-established-for-men-from-marginalised-sections/articleshow/100060991.cms

[4] Indian express, 1,500-year-old hero stones discovered in Tamil Nadu’s Vandavasi, Updated on: 14 Nov 2019, 7:04 am

[5] https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/Nov/14/1500-year-old-hero-stones-discovered-in-tamil-nadus-vandavasi-2061476.html

[6] Times of India, Four hero stones from Pallava dynasty discovered in tribal region, TNN / Sep 15, 2023, 09:35 IST.

[7] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/salem/four-hero-stones-from-pallava-dynasty-discovered-in-tribal-region/articleshow/103679360.cms

[8] The Hindu, A hero stone tells a tale from eighth century, October 13, 2014 01:50 am | Updated April 17, 2017 06:38 pm IST – Tirupur: R. VIMAL KUMAR.

[9] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/a-hero-stone-tells-a-tale-from-eighth-century/article11067897.ece

Social Reform Movement In India and Women Education from 19th Century – UGC seminar held at the Ongole campus of the Sri Acharya Nagarjuna University [3]

Social Reform Movement In India and Women Education from 19^th Century – UGC seminar held at the Ongole campus of the Sri Acharya Nagarjuna University [3]

Historians and Researchers may have to fix their writings in time and space: Indians are very often told and informed through writings that, “The position of women during the period was undoubtedly low, inferior and subordinate to men in patriarchal social system. Their life was miserable because of social customs like ‘purdah’, child marriage, ‘sati’, ban on widow remarriage, their confinement to household activities, their recognition as the producers of progeny particularly sons, denial of education to them etc”. These lines are repeated again and again as established theory, without giving details, but, quoting verbatim from others[1]. And these are repeated in M.Phil and Ph.d theses, books routinely and carried on and away for the last decades. So –

1. Indian women were dying on the pyre, whenever their husbands died.
2. Indian women were put behind “purdha,” i.e., they were not coming out of their houses.
3. They were married away, when they were children.
4. They were not sent to schools and educated.
5. They were inferior to men, as patriarchal system was followed.

If all these were happening, every year, the Indian women population must have been reduced considerably. Indian men must have been searching and running after non-Indian, foreign women. Then, within a considerable period, due to miscegenation, the entire Indian population must have been changed. But nothing happened.

1. The Indian society continued with increasing population.
2. This implies that there were gynaecologist-type doctors and well-experienced mid-wives were there to take care of pregnant women and deliveries.
3. Born babies were taken care of and children grown up with care.
4. For the increasing population, they were having food, dress and housing in spite of intrusions, invasions and other disturbances by the Mughals, Mongol, Afgan, European and other forces.
5. Had they been illiterates how then they could be experts in such medical fields.
6. More textile goods were manufactured and exported till 21^st century to European and American countries.
7. In 19^th century, many women took arms, marched with cavalry and fought with the British forces, even defeating them.
8. How then, they were given such training of using arms, raiding horses, fighting with males, that too, on battle-fields?
9. In fairs, religious tours / pilgrims, lakhs of women with children were fund, how they could have come out?

In this way, many questions can be raised, as they have been logical, scientific and factual also. How then the learned historians, researchers and others could not understand, realize and noted these points.

1. Bengal was not India, i.e., the issues and problems of Bengal were not applicable to other parts of India.
2. Afganistan, Burma, Nepal, Punjab, Rajaputna, Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjore, Travancore and other states were independent by 19^th
3. After 1857 only 19^th century, 50% of India was brought under the British Rule.
4. After the application of “Doctrine of lapse” and kidnapping or forceful taking away of sons of native kings, the British brutally brought other states under their control.
5. The French [Pondicherry, Mahe, Yanam etc.,] and Portuguese [Goa] were still keeping some parts of India under their control.
6. In spite of all these atrocities, cruelties and brutalities, they could rule 70% of India by the end of 19^th

Thus, the Acts and Rules of them were not applicable to others. Therefore, any research or historical results by any means cannot be applicable to all parts of India.

The British women and Indian women should be compared to know the position of the period 1757-1947: Women were burned alive till 18^th century officially in England and continued in 19^th century also. Some reports have recorded that even in 19^th century such women were punished. On 9 May 1726, Catherine Hayes was chained to a stake near Tyburn gallows. She was burned alive – the executioner let go of the rope (which would have strangled her) before the flames had reached her. Hayes was one of the last women ever to be burned at Tyburn. Catherine Murphy, who at her execution in 1789 was “dresst in a clean striped gown, a white ribbon, and a black ribbon round her cap“, was the last woman in England to be burned and in 1790, it was banned. Although burning was not a common punishment by this time, at least 33 women were burned alive between 1735 and 1789.  They were:

Name	Date	Place	Crime
Margaret Onion	08/08/1735	Chelmsford	Murdered husband
Mary Fawson	08/08/1735	Northampton	Murdered husband
Ann Mudd	25/06/1737	Tyburn	Murdered husband
Mary Bird	01/07/1737	Ely	Murdered husband
Mary Groke or Troke (age 16)	18/03/1738	Winchester	Murdered mistress
Ann Goodson	12/04/1738	Guildford	Murdered husband
Susannah Broom (age 67)	21/12/1739	Tyburn	Murdered husband
Elizabeth Moreton (or Owen)	10/08/1744	Evesham	Murdered husband
Mary Johnson	?/04/1747	Lincoln	Murdered husband
Amy Hutchinson	07/11/1749	Ely	Murdered husband
Elizabeth Packard	?/?/1750	Exeter	Murdered husband
Ann Whale (age 21)	08/08/1752	Horsham	Murdered husband
Ann Williams	13/04/1753	Over, near Gloucester	Murdered husband
Susannah Bruford  (age 19)	03/09/1753	Wells (Somerset)	Murdered husband
Mary Ellah	28/03/1757	York	Murdered husband
Alice Davis	31/03/1758	Tyburn	Coining (High Treason)
Margaret Bedingfield	08/04/1763	Ipswich	Murdered husband
Mary Heald	23/04/1763	Chester	Murdered husband
Mary Saunders	21/03/1764	Monmouth	Murdered mistress
Mary Norwood (age 33)	08/05/1765	Ilchester (Somerset)	Murdered husband
Ann Sowerby	10/08/1767	York	Murdered husband
Susannah Lott	21/07/1769	Maidstone	Murdered husband
Mary Hilton (or Hulton)	06/04/1772	Lancaster	Murdered husband
Elizabeth Herring	13/09/1773	Tyburn	Murdered husband
Margaret Ryan	18/03/1776	Maidstone	Murdered husband
Elizabeth Bordingham	30/03/1776	York	Murdered husband
Ann Cruttenden (age 80)	08/08/1776	Horsham	Murdered husband
Isabella Condon	27/10/1779	Tyburn	Coining (High Treason)
Rebecca Downing	29/06/1782	Exeter	Murdered mistress
Mary Bailey	08/03/1784	Winchester	Murdered husband
Phoebe Harris	21/06/1786	Newgate	Coining (High Treason)
Margaret Sullivan	25/06/1788	Newgate	Coining (High Treason)
Catherine Murphy	18/03/1789	Newgate	Coining (High Treason)

In England, burning was a legal punishment inflicted on women found guilty of high treason[2] [unfaithful husband mainly], petty treason[3] and heresy[4]. Over a period of several centuries, female convicts were publicly burnt at the stake, sometimes alive, for a range of activities including coining [counterfeiting] and mariticide[5]. So when they were burning their women in this way, how they could preach to Indians and disparage them as barbarians, uncivilized, patriarchal and so on.

A Long Time Burning: The History of Literary Censorship in England: It has been the title of a book giving details about the censorship in England. Indians need not think that England was / is free for freedom of expression / thought etc.

Literary censorship in England from the introduction of printing in 1476 to the present is the subject of this book[6]. Topics discussed include –

(1) the development of prepublication censorship from 1476 to 1695;

(2) political censorship generated by fear of enemies at home and abroad: 1695-1760;

(3) religious and political censorship in the early 18th century;

(4) influences of Societies for the Reformation of Manners on the enforcement of laws against obscene literature, beginning in 1692;

(5) liberty versus licentiousness: 1760-1792;

(6) struggles against political censorship after 1792, with greater freedoms of speech and the press evident by 1832;

(7) expurgation in the 19th century fostered especially by Thomas Bowdler and various organizations working against freedom of the press;

(8) Victorian mistranslations, expurgations, and moral censorship exercised chiefly by booksellers, libraries, publishers, and editors; and

(9) the relaxed moral censorship in the 20th century which nevertheless continues to exercise its own form of censorship–on racism, pornography, the emancipation of women. A 200-page appendix contains extracts from little-known publications banned during the past 500 years. Therefore, they should not teach Indians about all these topics.

India was different for political, social, religious and ideological purposes and interpretation: The views of the ideologists could be identified very easily, as they contradict many times in their speeches and writings. They talk about Vedic India, Hindu India, Hellenistic India, Moghul India, Colonial India, French India, British India and so on. From 17^th to 20^th centuries, they could deal with many “Indias”, yet,  they say that there was no “India” as such, till it was made later. However, coming to “invading / conquering / ruling of India,” everybody claimed that he invaded / conquered / ruled India. Incidentally, the other people wanted to discover and come to India, as milk and honey were flowing on the roads, i.e, India was so fertile, bountiful, and rich in all aspects. Columbus without coming to India, discovered “India” exactly in the opposite direction. In other words, the people who lived in the opposite direction, looked like “Indians” for the learned Columbus and he was informed accordingly by the most-learned other experts. Anyway, India was discovered, the routes were also found and the Arabs and the Europeans came. They came as traders, merchants, brokers of goods, but, slowly started setting up factories with Indian experts and workers. Then, they colonized the areas, looted and brought under control with mercenaries [private armies, armed forces]. The British India slowly enlarged from 1757 to 1857 and disappeared in 1947. Yet, the “histories” written by them, and that followed by the Indian counterparts followed a pattern forgetting the basics, fundaments and rudiments of logic. Thus, they forget “Indias” existing, when they talk about “British India” and when they quote the documents of the “British India,” they forget the documents of “other Indias.” Audi Alteram Partem (Hear the other Side) or “let the other side be heard as well” has been the legal dictum. Here, are they listening to other side i.e, getting documents of the other side? When Indians, Hindus specifically accused of for all social evils of “India” [what India, they have to tell], how such evils came up? How that they could continue for the last 5000 years in spite so many non-Hindu reformers, non-Vedic warriors and rulers continuously ruled for 1300 years?

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

23-02-2020

[1] See, Mahesh Chundra Deb, “A Sketch of the Conditions of the Hindoo women” (1839),

Goutam Chattopadhya ed.,  Awakening in the early Nineteenth Century, Progressive Publishers, Calcutta,1965), PP. 89- 105;

Neera Desai, Women in Modern India, 2nd edn, Vara and Co., Bombay 1967;

Partha Chatterjee, “The Nationalist Resolution of the women’s question,” in Recasting Women, , PP.238 – 39.

[2] Under the law of the United Kingdom, high treason is the crime of disloyalty to the Crown. Offences constituting high treason include plotting the murder of the sovereign; committing adultery with the sovereign’s consort, with the sovereign’s eldest unmarried daughter, or with the wife of the heir to the throne; levying war against the sovereign and adhering to the sovereign’s enemies, giving them aid or comfort; and attempting to undermine the lawfully established line of succession

[3] Petty treason or petit treason was an offence under the common law of England which involved the betrayal (including murder) of a superior by a subordinate. It differed from the better-known high treason in that high treason can only be committed against the Sovereign. In England and Wales, petty treason ceased to be a distinct offence from murder by virtue of the Offences against the Person Act 1828.

[4] Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs.[1] Heresy is distinct from both apostasy, which is the explicit renunciation of one’s religion, principles or cause,[2] and blasphemy, which is an impious utterance or action concerning God or sacred things

[5] Mariticide literally means killing of one’s husband or boyfriend. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out. Used in current common law terminology as gender-neutral for either spouse or significant other of either sex. The killing of a wife is called uxoricide.

[6] Thomas, Donald, A Long Time Burning: The History of Literary Censorship in England, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 111 Fourth Avenue, New York, New York 10003, 1969.https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED039231

Social Reform Movement In India and Women Education from 19th Century – UGC seminar held at the Ongole campus of the Sri Acharya Nagarjuna University [1]

Social Reform Movement In India and Women Education from 19^th Century – UGC seminar held at the Ongole campus of the Sri Acharya Nagarjuna University [1]

PG Campus of Acharya Nagarjuna University (ANU) has become the Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam University: The U.G.C. sponsored National Seminar on Social Reform Movement In India and Women Education from 19^th Century was held at the Ongole campus of the Sri Acharya Nagarjuna University from 19^th and 20^th February 2020. The government has upgraded the erstwhile PG Campus of Acharya Nagarjuna University (ANU) into a new university named as the Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam University [AKTP University]. The Ongole-AKTP University is fortunate in this regard, as it had an advantage of owning 100 acres of land at Pernamitta village within the Ongole city limits. The university is set up over 114 acres of land allotted for the Ongole PG Centre. It is currently running with 10 postgraduate courses and has 137 private un-aided colleges affiliated to it. Around 48 staff are working in the PG Centre and withe the upgradation, the number is likely to increase. As for as  Ongole is concerned, I have come here several times to attend seminars in 2013[1], 2014[2], 2016[3], 2018[4] etc., and it is not a new place and I have covered and posted in my blogs also [the links are given below]. Thus, I used to meet our friends again and again. It would be very nice to meet elders and get blessings, meet colleagues to share ideas and youngsters to understand the present times, as we have still been in learning processes from others. From 2013 to 2020, I have to note the changes taking place there.

The Theme of the Seminar[5]: Nineteenth-Century of British India is a milestone for the social reform movement in India. In the course of century, the social reformers of Indian and Christian Missionaries adapted several initiations for the uplift of women as well as depressed classes. The reformers, as well as Missionaries in India, have studied the caste system of India. They observed the role of women down through the ages. For instance, in the Vedic period, women were in high esteem. Women shared education along with men. Since the 8^th Century, gradually women life became very seclude in Sub-continent. No refreshing streams flowed back, into the life of women in their homes and as centuries passed, the Brahmanical code. The decline of women education was so marked and rapid by the beginning of 19^th Century, hardly one woman in a hundred could read in Madras Presidency and Malwa. It may, therefore, be stated that at the advent of British rule, female education had practically disappeared from Hindu Community, nay, it was regarded as a source of moral danger, if not as an actual vice, since only dancing girls could normally read and write. In their families, the old tradition to teach reading & writing to the new generations was continued. However, from the second decade of the 19^th century with the initiation of East India Company, Missionaries and social reformers the importance of education of women and upliftment and elevation of depressed classes were started. In this way, the Indian renaissance started in nineteenth-century and several reforms transformed the Indian society in addition to the upliftment of woman status. Further, it also elevated the status of depressed classes.

The Sub-themes of the seminar: The following these were also identified as sub-themes for the seminar and paper presentation:

1. Role of Reformers
2. Upliftment of Dalits
3. Indian Renaissance in the 19th Century
4. Uplift of women
5. Role of Press in the Social Reform Movement
6. Role of Christian Missionaries
7. Status of women Education
8. Any other issue related to the Seminar theme

The seminar hall at the second floor had a facelift, but without lift and wash-room: About the seminar hall, I have already recorded in my earlier blog as, “The seminar was held at the auditorium situated at the second floor of the building. Here, there is no lift, in other words, the building has not changed like Ongole. Nowadays, lifts can be provided with 4 to 8 lakh budget and it is not at all a big amount for Universities, as they get funds. ” And still, no provision has been made for urinal/toilet/restroom facility, though, the seminar has been modernized with chairs, stage and AC facilities. The difference can be noted from the photos of mine included in my blogs covering the earlier seminars attended. Nowadays, people give facelift only forgetting the other parts and it happens everywhere. Many times, we talk about principles, lecture about code of conduct and advocate all sorts of moral values and all, but, when anything comes to practice, most of us want to avoid, evader even started arguing against apologetically.

Ongole, where I get varieties of pickles: Earlier, daily, I used to go for walking up to the junction where there is a church and statues for the former CM and the bodyguard that got killed in the air accidence. But, this year, because of my health condition, I could not go. In fact, here in the Hotel Abhilash, I was accommodated in the first floor Room no.215 along with Prof Madhusudhana Rao, Tirupati, where there is no lift. Thus, from 2013, except the hall, nothing has changed as for as the lift and urinal. Definitely, it has been difficult and inconvenience for the aged and as well as sugar patents, they might relax once in three hours or so. Incidentally, Ongole has been famous for food in the sense that they sell side-dishes separately in packets. When I had meals first time in 2013, I was about to complete the taking meal and get up, but, suddenly, the server came and pointed out that I did not taste the other side-dishes showing kept on the other side of the table. In fact, there were nearly 35 items, but, I could not taste all. They sell different varieties of pickles also. Last time, I purchased seven varieties of pickles that we cannot get in Chennai. This time, I could get only five varieties. Thanks to Prof Madhusudhana Rao, who only informed about this and got also!

The inauguration of the National seminar 19-02-2020: The moment, we reached the Campus, there was registration. Only 40 registered and 14 with papers. After registration, we went to the seminar hall on the second floor. I had great difficulty to reach the second floor, as I was not feeling well with the raising BP coupled with a breathing problem. The seminar appeared with a new look modified with new chairs and airconditioned. From my postings, you can note the difference between the old hall and the present one. The seminar was inaugurated on 19^th morning 11.00 hours by their officials and it was some sort of family affair with the routines of lamp lighting etc.. The chief guest was Sri V. Rangaraju, Director, AP State Archives. The theme of the seminar was explained by the convener, Dr G. Rajmohan Rao. The inaugural address was by Dr I. Thirumali and the key-note address by Prof Adapa Satyanarayana. The guests, invitees were honoured and they talked about the subject matter and issues of the seminar.

The paper presentation sessions: After the inaugural, there was lunch and after lunch, the paper reading session started.  Sudarshan, Madhusudhana Rao,…. and a lady presented papers. Dr Anjaiah presided over and presented his paper also. There was an audience of 20 only.  Madhusudhana Rao presented the paper, “Colonial Prostitution of Whites and Blacks: How White and Black prostitutions were considered, treated and controlled,” was a joint paper co-authored by K. V. Ramakrishna Rao. Perhaps, for the first time, this aspect has been raked up fr research and facts brought out about the British exploitation of Indian women during the colonial period, when much raise was heaped upon them for their great role involved in the upliftment of Indian women. V. Sudarshan read a paper on Durgabai Deshmukh, and such details are already available[6]. In fact, in Chennai, the hospital started by her working under the banner of  “Andhra Mahila Sabha” has been well known to serve the poor and the middle-class people of Chennai. The lady-paper presenter was blaming Brahmins for their exclusion, treating menstrual women kept in rooms, “too much untouchability” followed among themselves etc, but, in between, she was reading about other issues that are not connected with what he was trying to point out. Though Anjaiah and others discussed about Andhra women who worked for the upliftment of women, they never mentioned that those women were Brahmins. Thus, her bias in the paper presentation was revealed and it was questioned by Anjaiah, Sudarshan and others. The sectional president also advised her to take the points and change the paper suitably.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

23-02-2020

[1] National Seminar on Migration Movements and Indian Diaspora in Modern Period was held on April 3^rd and 4^th 2013 at the ANU Ongole campus. My coverage of the proceedings can be read here:

https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2013/04/05/national-seminar-on-migration-movements-and-indian-diaspora-in-modern-period/

[2]  National Seminar on “Historicity of Ramayana” held at Ongole, Andhrapradesh on November 8^th and 9^th 2014. My coverage of the proceedings can be read here:

https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2014/11/11/national-seminar-on-historicity-of-ramayana-held-at-ongole-andhrapradesh-on-november-8th-and-9th-2014/

[3]  Social Justice and the Marginalized in South India: Experiences and Challenges” – National seminar held at C. S. R. Sarma College, Ongole on July 30^th and 31^st, 2016. My coverage of the proceedings can be read here:

https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2016/08/15/social-justice-and-the-marginalized-in-south-india-experiences-and-challenges-national-seminar-held-at-c-s-r-sarma-college-ongole-on-july-30th-and-31st-2016/

[4] Indian press and Socio-cultural and Religious Transformation in Colonial Rule of 19^th and 20^th Centuries: A New Perspective – National Seminar held at Nsgarjuna University, Ongole Campus. My coverage of the proceedings can be read here in three parts:

Part-I – https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2018/09/24/indian-press-and-socio-cultural-and-religious-transformation-in-colonial-rule-of-19th-and-20th-centuries-a-1/

Part-II – https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2018/09/28/indian-press-and-socio-cultural-and-religious-transformation-in-colonial-rule-of-19th-and-20th-centuries-a-new-perspective-national-seminar/

Part-II – https://kvramakrishnarao.wordpress.com/2018/09/29/indian-press-and-socio-cultural-and-religious-transformation-in-colonial-rule-of-19th-and-20th-centuries-a-new-perspective-national-seminar-held-at-nagarjuna-university-ongole-campus-3/

[5] Based on the circular of the seminar of the orgainizers issued this year 2020. However, I have a feeling that these sentences, I could remember of heard or read somewhere in some conference. I am not able to recollect immediately now.

[6] https://ddms.co.in/ – and https://ddms.co.in/founder/here about the institutional details can be found; https://ddms.co.in/milestones/ – here, the achievements of Durgabhai Deshmukh with details and photos can be seen.