The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

Sind / Sindh had been part of India / Bhart for centuries, till Arabs invaded and tried to Islamize……

The warriors of Sindh were resisting them with their valour……

However, they could not match with the cunningness of their enemies, when they were following the code of conduct of war etc…..

In 712, the invasion started, within 300 – 400 years, Sindh was Islamized……

and slowly, all the monuments, temples, sculptures etc., started disappearing, as the iconoclasts were destroying them regularly……

now the condition of Hro-stones are like this…….

Hero-stones in Sind: Lower Sindh in southern Pakistan is dotted with many ancient cemeteries boasting the tombs of fallen heroes, and stones erected in memory of their heroism and chivalry (Hero stones). Most of the tombstones bear weaponry depictions symbolizing death in the line of action or at least participation in battle. They are found at Oongar in the district of Thatta, province of Sindh and , a Jats burial site, is located fifty kilometres from the city of Hyderabad, close to the Buddhist stupa of Sudheran in the district of Tando Muhammad Khan, also in Sindh[1]. One finds inscriptional slabs lying all over the site at the cemetery of the Jats but it is difficult to find any inscriptions at all at the Oongar necropolis since all of the chaukhandis have disintegrated and not a single tombstone is in its original condition[2]. In other words, they were destroyed and only parts are available there now. Hero-stones and sati stones found in the Sind province of present Pakistan has been pointed out by many and also noted that they are disappearing[3]. Central Asian and Bactrian areas exhibit broken sculptures of many panels and they are identified and interpreted differently. As the Indian kings / people were massacred there, it is mentioned as Hindu-kush = Hindus blood i.e,  the Hindus were  completely routed and eliminated there, and hence, memorial stones must have been erected. Till “Hindu-kush” occurred incidence at that area, they were there struggling with invading groups. Thus, only left out monuments have been recorded by Auriel Stein during his exploration. After Talibanization, even sculptures in the museums were destroyed and therefore, the fate of the sculptures and paintings found at the sites cannot be imagined.

Memorial stones in Cambodia / Siam / Thailand: In the Siamese culture, schools pointed out about the bloody sacrifice to the Earth Goddess offered at the Door of the Underworld, an ancient tree, a termite mound, a cave, a ring of stones[4]. At the time of the Buddhist ordination ceremony and its site, the Uposatha hall was surrounded by a ring of stones. Michael Wright noted that, “There is no evidence that these stones were developed from anything in India or Lanka, whereas scholars have proposed an affinity with prehistoric circles of rough-hewn stones found in the Northeast.” However, as the South Indian merchant guilds were having close contacts with these areas, there were possibilities that some sailors, merchants and other crew members might have died there and they might have erected memorial stones for them. Stone circles are considered as memorial stones, as noted above. Here, in the Siamese tradition, as there had been mixture of several peoples, the changes noted would be appreciable. Whether such circle stones were used for good or bad purposes – is also difficult to ascertain now. In any case, they were associated with sacrifice / death only.

Interpreting death, last rites and memorial stones in the context of race, language etc., by the colonial and other ideologists: Indians must have had their territory touching the other dominant civilizations like Sumerian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek and Chinese. Thus, their influence on the other cultures has been appreciable. That is why most of the people of the ancient civilizations wanted to come to India.  Indologists were pointing out such similarities and facts during last 150-300 years, but, suddenly changed their attitude. Thus, they changed their theory of the origin of race from the Ganges valley to other places[5]. The historiography was also changed accordingly. The glorification of Indian civilization turned to criticizing even disparaging. This attitude could be noted from the works of William Jones also. With the history writing of Vincent Smith, the Indian history was reduced to 2000 years starting with the Alexander’s invasion / Asokan script. About philosophy, initially, the world scholars accepted that India was the origin of philosophy, thus, every book of philosophy started with Indian philosophy. Thus, the fight started between India and Greece and Indian history has been made to start after Alexander’s invasion, the “sheet anchor of” Indian history. Then, “Aryan-Dravidian” race theory was introduced to dive, but the underlying concepts (rites conducted from birth to death) match with each other. However, the comprehensive and holistic study of Hero-stones gives a different picture. Again, one could note the commonality, in spite of the fact that such practices were carried on far and wide and even chronologically varied from Bronze Age to Modern Age.

Conclusion: Only few examples have been given for each area and state for illustrative purposes. An exhaustive study can also be made incorporating all details after conducting field study and reading local literature. Thus, with limited study and the above discussion, the following points are noted as conclusion:

• The belief in soul, transmigration of soul, karma, life after death, rebirth, cycle of birth and death, etc., have been the basis for the creation of the memorial stone.
• Even during the Bronze Age period, Indian Hero-stones were found in the Central Asia, but, portions were destroyed.
• There is difficult in connecting protohistory with historic narratives in the Indian context, as historians have such thumb rule.
• Logically, scientifically and technologically, such restriction appears to be artificial, inconsistent and redundant considering many other archaeological, material and scientific evidences.
• After the Mahabharat War around 3102 BCE, the participant armies with warriors dispersed and started moving to their destination[6]. However, as some could not reach, they settled down on the way and they became new dynasties and people groups. However, many commonalities could be noted among these people groups[7].  Jains – essences, gymnosophists (people wearing no dress or white dress); Rajaputs – Scythians, etc[8].
• The Hero-stones were found in the areas of Central Asia, Gandhara, Sind and other provinces on the west and Burma, Siam, Kedah etc., on the East.
• That Indic / Hindu / Vedic / Sanatana believing people were living in many parts of the world, at a particular time can also be understood and known from the prevalent of memorial stones and related philosophy.
• Thus, the memorial stone erection had been an Indian practice found from the Bronze Age to 18^th century.
• The dichotomy of dividing Indians based on race, language etc., is also cleared considering the prevalence of memorial stones in different places as pointed out, as “karma” continues!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

---

[1] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Memorial Stones of Sindh, Pakistan: Typology and Iconography.” Puralokbarta 1 (2015): 285-298.

[2] . According to the notables of Oongar, village people have purportedly removed many of the decorative slabs either to sell in the lucrative markets in such items or simply in order to decorate their drawing rooms with these valuable pieces of art. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” P.54

[3] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art 27 (2010): 232-238.

[4] Wright, Michael. “Sacrifice and the underworld: death and fertility in Siamese myth and ritual.” Journal of the Siam Society 78.part 1 (1990).

[5] Léon Poliakov. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York, 1974.

As the European Indologists were using the expression “Aryan,” perhaps, even the Sanskrit scholar like B.G. Tilak was misled and tried to locate the Aryan origin to “Arctic region.”

[6]  Even the Greeks were mentioned as “degraded khastriyas,” by old Indologists, but, such details were suppressed later in 20^th century itself.

[7] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[8]  These are discussed by Richrd Garbe, Col. Tod and others linking Christianity with India, lost tribes etc.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The Chayasthambas: Chaya-sthamba (shadow + pillar) is a memorial pillar bearing the image of the deceased. It implies that the person is dead, but, he / she lives there as a shadow i.e, either spirit or memory lives there as a memorable symbol. The Cayasthambhas of Andhra Pradesh are herostones and memorial stones. Karnataka and Maharashtra contain a large number of sati and hero-stones. This series fall in the early medieval period (5th, 6th century CE. onwards) and have been dated to 5th to 14th-15th centuries CE. The series from Maharashtra does not contain any inscription hence the dating has to be done on stylistic grounds. Apart from these areas, such memorial stones are found in Madhyapradesh, Bihar, Kashmir and Orissa. In Odisha, this form of the Divine Mother is often designated as Stambhesvari (Khambhesvari), or as Kandhunidevi i.e. the deity of the aboriginal Khonds[1]. Parvati is considered as lithic counterpart of Siva Liga and thus, Stambheswari or Khambheswari. That Parvati is also known as Sati, Chaya, Sakti, part of Siva (Ardha-nareswara) and so on. Thus, all these point to Dhakhsyayini episode, from which the Sati concept was evolved.

India-1947 is not the India, studied historically: India of c3500 BCE has been entirely different from that India- 2500 BCE, India – 1000 CE and India – 1947. Sind touching the boundaries of Persia and Arabia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Balochistan – on north-west and Brahmadesa, Yuan, and Indo-China on the north-east and thus, India was existing in such a vast geographical area[2]. That is why the Persian and Greek sources say that Darius and Alexander wanted to invade India. They were characteristically mentioned as “India intra-gangem” and “India extra-gangem.” Interestingly, these areas were ruled by the Rajaput warrior class rulers. Thus, Hero-stones are found in these areas. There are certain documents, as pointed out by Edward Pocoke[3], Col. Tod[4] and others that Vikramaditya was ruling parts of Arabia[5]. The similarities between the Greeks and Indians were pointed out by many scholars including William Jones[6], Richard Garb end others. As the Persians, Greeks and Arabs started intruding from c.500 BCE to 712 CE, the Indian kingdoms and dynasties started getting affected by them.  With the Islamization, these parts changed completely and with the creation of Pakistan, whatever left out Indian monuments have also been subjected to vandalism and official forceful encroachment and thus, temples have started disappearing. Under such circumstances, the study of Hero-stones and Sati stones is very difficult.

Memorial stones found in Kashmir from the Neolithic period: During the Neolithic period-II, a stone slab with its base 70cm wide was found half buried upside down in a pit at Burzhom[7]. The engraved side was made smooth with proper polishing. Unfortunately, the upper most part of the stone is partially damaged resulting into the loss of the upper part of the engraved scene. The scene depicts five things, Two men, an antelope, a dog and two double-layered circular objects with rays on outer wall like a sun. One man is standing at the rear end of the stag with a long rod-like structure, most probably a spear in the right hand. The second man, shooting an arrow in the chest of the stag is at the front. His left leg is in air crouching back. All these clearly prove that it was a hero-stone, but, now found in a damaged condition. Massive menhiris that can be still found at the site, gritty red ware wheel made Pottery, rubble structures and a few metallic objects were found belonging to this period of Megalithic culture. Thus, the megalithic burial practices continued with Neolithic burial practices and thereafter.

Pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan monuments of Kashmir: In Kashmir, there were hundreds and perhaps thousands of Memorial / Hero stones and as well as Sati Stones. The earliest examples of memorial stones recorded from Kashmir date back to circa 2nd -3rd century CE.  Thus, the reason for such practice has to be analyzed. Here, the narrative would be that of the pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan periods. The Muslim writers used to interpret in that way dividing the period. They were found in every nook and corner of the Valley, these memorial stones reflect a widespread practice based on the tenets of ‘hero worship’ as well as ‘ritual death’ like ‘Praya’ and Sati. As usual, Kashmiris haven’t documented much, the stones are simply called ‘memorial stones’. Kashmir is known as ‘Satidesh’ (Land of Sati). The mythical origins of the valley come from the story of Sati, the first wife of Shiva who immolated herself. Still, these stone memorials stand testimony to a time when women were burnt alive and then worshipped. When the Mohammedans attacked during the medieval period, the women of that area would have resorted to sati or Jowher to save their honour, just like Rajaput women.

Disappearing Hero stones of Kashmir: One of the first archaeological reports on ancient monuments of Kashmir did mention the probability that these were ‘sati-stones’. Rai Sahib Daya Ram during his survey of monuments of Kashmir in around 1915 wrote: “Another class of antiquities of this late period which are very common everywhere in Kashmir, are a kind of memorial spans which might have been sati stones. […] The face of the slab is divided into two compartments, the upper one containing a standing figure of Bhairava with this usual emblems, and the lower a female figure seated between a bird and a dog, the vehicle of the deity referred to. In some examples, the female is represented as seated by the side of her deceased husband.” Daya Ram in ‘Pre-Muhammadan Monuments of Kashmir’ ascribes the stone slabs to 14th century, the late part of Kashmir History, towards the end of Hindu rule when no big shrines were anymore constructed. Rajatarangini tells us 14th century was a turbulent time as the local powers where constantly at war with each other and Islam was introduced in Kashmir. Men were dying in wars and women were getting burnt.  This brings us to the other kind of memorial stones found in Kashmir: the ‘Hero-Stones’ Some memorial slabs kept at SPS Museum, Srinagar. During the administration of Dewan Kirpa Ram [(1826-1830)] Kashmiri Pandits resumed the ancient practice of Sati in all likelihood persuaded by the Sikhs and the Punjabi Hindus[8], because of the Mohammedan atrocities. So these details would become another “Kashmir Files”!

Statues of dead in Tukistan, Central asia: In Turkistan, the hero statues have been found erected like Hero-stones[9]. The researchers accepted that[10] “The custom of making a statue to a dead warrior is reflected in the heroic epic as well.” The statues found of bust size, elongated size etc., resemble hero-stone only, though, the researchers do not mention with such expressions. But, when they were erected to commemorate dead warriors, they come under hero-stones only. As Islam prohibits idol-worship, perhaps, they do not mention with such explicit expressions. In fact, Yaroslav Vassilkov[11] confirms that they are Indian Hero-stones only and they belonged to the Bronze Age. Therefore, a question arises why the Indians living there resorted to such practices there. During that period, whom the Indian heroes were fighting against and getting martyrdom, so that memorials could be built for them. While the controversy of Aryans migrating from Central Asia to Indus Valley and from there to South India has been there and persistently believed even today by the Dravidologists, such events have to be analyzed critically.

Hero-stones at Mizoram: The North-eastern India was facing ethnic and tribal conflicts, at the Chinese were always trying to control other people. Till the medieval – 13th century, the North-eastern India and beyond were part of the “Greater India” and under Indian influence. Thus, the Hero-stones of Mizoram[12] have been interesting to study. The Mizo raised stones over graves in memory of deceased family members[13]. In the case of a chief, the memorial stone is erected at the entrance of the village. There may be two different types of memorials among the Mizo, the stones which are erected over a grave and therefore, connected with burials and another erected at the entrance of the village which are meant only as memorials and have no connection with burials. Besides hero-stones, memorial-type stones are also found in the villages of Mizoram[14]. The Mizo megaliths serve as Memorial stones or Commemorative stones in functionality. The Mizo raised stones in memory of the deceased. The use of wood or stone, or both as memorials to the dead and to the living is also another characteristic feature of this tradition.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

---

[1] B. C. Pradhan, Sakti worship in Odisha, Ph. D. Dissertation Sambalpur University, 1983, p. 39.

[2]   Now some writers denote it as “Greater India,” Akhanda Bharat etc., but the fact is that “India” of 3500 BCE is bigger than the 1947-India.

[3]  Edward Pockoke, India in Greece,

[4]  Col.Tod, The Annals and antiquities of Rajastan, Three volumes, Motilala Banrasidas, New Delhi. 

[5] Whether the Vikramadiya story is myth, mythistory, mythology etc., or not, he has been so popular and lives among the people even today through many sources. Only Vincent Smith dubbed him as myth and he was consigned accordingly.

[6]  William Jones, On the Chronology of Hindus, in The Works of sir William Jones, Vol.IV, pp,1-48, 1789.

P. J. Marshall (Ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, Cambridge university Press, UK, 1970,

[7] Dar, Mohammad Ashraf. “Earliest History Of Kashmir (Archaeological And Geological Perspective).” International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS)

Volume 3 Issue 13, December 2016.

[8] R. K. Parmu, A History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, 1819-1846, Peoples Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1969.

[9] Kubarev, G. V. “Ancient Turkic statues: Epic hero or warrior ancestor?.” Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 29.1 (2007): 136-144.

[10] Sher Ya.A. 1966, Drevnetyurkskie plemena v zerkale arkheologii. In Stepnye imperii Evrazii. St. Petersburg: Farn, pp. 92 – 165.

[11] Vassilkov, Yaroslav. “Indian” hero-stones” and the Earliest Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Bronze Age.” Journal of Indo-European Studies 39.1/2 (2011): 194.

[12] Singh, Salam Shyam. “Hero stones and other archaeological remains of Lianpui Mizoram.” Journal of History, Art and Archaeology 2.1 (2022): 53-62.

[13] Nayan, Sujeet, and Moirangthem Jackson Singh., Menhirs and Petroglyphs of Vangchhia,  Indian Journal of Archaeology 7.1 (2022): 53-84.

[14] SINGH, SS. “Archaeological Remains at Zote in Mizoram, in 50 Years after Daojali-Hading: Emerging Perspectives in the Archaeology of Northeast India,

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The place where erected: Similarly, the place where the memorial stones were erected has also been a part of research studies.

1. Generally, where the person attained martyrdom, that spot was chosen for erecting the hero-stone.
2. The scholarly tradition[1]  maintains that a hero-stone was raised on the spot where the hero fell or where his remains were buried, or alternatively in his native village or in the place where his relatives lived.
3. However, they we either disturbed or shifted to other convenient places.
4. The current position of the materials, however, hardly corresponds to the original one. Many have been relocated inside museums or temple premises, either as freestanding elements or as structural components; but even when found at the crossroads of hamlets, under trees or next to water reserves, one cannot ignore that some transformative process must have intervened over the centuries and reshaped the landscape (e.g. due to the construction of a new road, or to cropland expansion).
5. Archaeological excavations never occurred systematically in the past, so that at present, threatened by increasing urbanization, the veracity of both primary and secondary sources on this issue is de facto unascertainable.
6. Formation of new states / countries and vandalism also responsible for the disturbance or even destruction of hero-stones.

These erected stones at the villages and remote areas might have become distant or deserted places, due to urbanization etc., and thus, slowly neglected and forgotten. The enthusiastic explorers and others, very often claim that they “discovered” the hero-stones and so on!

Stone usage in the Megalith burials and tribals: Man and stone-usage cannot be separated. Modernism and urbanization might have changed the life-style, but, its usage continues, as could be noted, at least in the kitchens. In India, every group of people follow certain “samskaras”  traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies where, stones play an important role. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition in India, as the practice of erecting megaliths in honour of the dead is still found among the tribals living in northeastern, eastern, central and south India like the Khasis and the Garos and the Syntengs of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and the Karbis of Assam, the Nagas of Manipur and Nagaland, the Hos and the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Gonds and the Morias of Chattisgarh, the Kurumbas of Kerala, the Bondos and the Gadabas of Orissa and the Savaras of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Thus, its prevalence in all states can be noted.

Hero-tones in South India: The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu is more than 2400 years old that is 4^th century BCE. According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones is found in the Indian state of Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest in Karnataka is dated to the 5^th century CE. The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (400 BCE) though a vast majority were erected between the 4^th century BCE to 13^th century CE. During this period, the dynasties were fighting with each other, and later I the medieval period resisting the Arab / Mohammedan intrusion into South India. Thus, the Hero-stones inculcated the memory of fallen heroes for their sacrifices to protect their boundaries, properties and power.

Sati – Widow burning was prevalent among all the ancient civilizations:  It has been argued by them that sati, now popularly known and understood as the practice of widow-burning did not originate from the ancient Indians, as it is commonly believed and propagated, but had roots in the ancient Egypt, Greek, and other European civilizations. It was among the Gauls, the Goths, the Norwegians, the Celts, the Slavs and the Tharcians. In Egypt, the processions of a king, Pharaoh were buried along with him or a pyramid built over his body, while in Greece women entered into the pyres of their dead husbands. Similar pyre sacrifices were prevalent among almost all ethnic groups of Europe. In China, if a widow killed herself in order to follow her dead husband to heaven, her corpse was taken out in a great procession[2]. Col. James Tod mentions that Female immolation originated with the Sun-worshipping Saivas and was common to all those nations who adored this as the most splendid object of the visible creation[3]. Here, also, the terms and expressions used have to be understood properly:

1. Sati – Voluntary self-immolation of wife. Getting into a pyre voluntarily, “Udankattai-erudhal” as mentioned in Tamil.
2. Sati – Widow burning – Sometimes, interpreted as forced (as interpreted from Mohammedan and colonial writers).
3. Jauhar, sometimes spelt Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by females, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by Turko-Persian Islamic invaders, when facing certain defeat during a war.

Satikal prominent in and around Rajasthan area: Sati and hero-stones are important and studied in the context. Rajasthan, and nearby areas are prominent with Satikal, because of the Mohammedan atrocities, as they are well-known, they are not discussed. The hero-stones from Central India have emerged from a tribal context and concern tribal chiefs. They are invaluable in understanding attitudes to death and belief patterns of tribes. The hero-stones from Western India reflect the physical and social ecology of the area in their pictographic context. Those that depict cattle raids in their lowest panel are understood as indicators of a dominant pastoral economy of the past. These hero-stones are found only in a specific area of the semi-arid tract of Western India. The hero and sati stones are largely found in Western, Central and Southern India. From Rajasthan We basically two types of hero-stones found. They are Paliyas (single panelled stones) and the Govardhan pillars that have a sculpted top. Sati practice is found in the Tamilndu also as recorded in the literature and inscriptions[4].

Why there were more hero-stones in Karnataka?: The relation between death and memorial stones and glorifying death and other concepts are inter-related and highly spiritual also. S. Settar pointed out[5] how the Jains identified eight types of death grouped under three categories –

1. Bala-marana – childish or foolish death
2. Pandita marana – wise death and
3. Pandita-pantita marana – the wisest of wise deaths

Then there are other types of marana –

• Sanyasana-marana – death through renunciation
• Sallekhana-marana – death through fasting
• Ardhana-marana – death through worship
• Pancapada-marana – death through prayer
• Pantita-marana – death through knowledge or wisdom
• Samadhi-marana – death through mediation etc.,

The Jains used to debate with the Buddhists and Hindus setting “death” as a precondition for the defeated. The Karnaka inscriptions show how the defeated were crushed in oil-mills. However, to glorify them, hero-stones might have been erected for them. Thus, the Jaina literature has elaborately dealt with death and also the Jains erecting monuments for the dead. As the Jains were dominant in Karanaka during the medieval period, the hero-stones were also found maximum there.

The Govardhan pillars: The Govardhan pillars are memorials for those who died in a cattle raid, but battle scene are also depicted at times. Sri  Krishna lifted the Govardhan hill and saved people – thus, lifting the Govrdhan hill is considered as a Herculean task and thus, the name “Govardhan pillar”! A sati would normally be shown by depiction of a couple facing each other. Chronologically, these stones would fall within the 6th to 7th  and 13th-14th century CE periods. The Saurashtra series is of a relatively recent period, belonging to the last three to four hundred years (16^th-17^th centuries). Here the most frequent occurrence is of Paliyas. The Paliyas are normally linked to cattle raids, skirmishes and village disputes. This is similar to the cattle seizing, cattle raiding and cattle recovering practices of the ancient Tamil Sangam people[6]. South India and Maharashtra can be easily termed as the heartland of hero-stones. The hero-stones from Tamil Nadu fall roughly within the 6^th to the 12^th century CE.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

---

[1] Vanamamalai, N. 1975. Herostone Worship in Ancient South India, In Social Scientist, 3, 10, pp. 40-46.

[2]  C. H. Tawney, Kathasaritsaaara, Vol.I, Terminal Essay on Suttee by Pensei, Appendix – I, pp.255-272.  He pointed out that such practice was there among all the ancient civilizations.

[3]  Col. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan , Motilal  Bararasidas, New Delhi, Vol.II, 1971, p.737.

[4] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Sati In Ancient Tamil Literature , A paper presented at 11th session of South Indian History Congress held at Calicut from February 1st -3rd , 1991.

https://archive.org/details/SatiInAncientTamilLiteratureK.V.RamakrishnaRao

[5] Shadakshari Settar, Inviting death – Indian attitude towards the ritual death, Brill, Vol.28, 1989.

[6] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding In Sangam Age, the paper was presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Karnatak University, Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991  https://archive.org/details/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao

When I presented this paper, there was a discussion in which S. Settar asked many questions about Hero-stones of Tamilagam etc.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, IRS (Retd.,)

Guest Faculty and Research scholar,

Department of Ancient History and Archaeology,

University of Madras,  Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Cell: 98402 92065; e- mail: kopallerao@yahoo.co.uk

Stone memorial, rock memorial for the dead: The stones erected whether they were with or without inscriptions and sculptures to commemorate the death or dead persons particularly that of warriors, fighters or soldiers are considered as Hero stones.

• The origin of the commemorative stones are mentioned with different names and expressions – Nadukal, Virakal, Hero-stone, Satikal, Govardhan pillars, Chaya-stambhas, stele, Jaya-stamba, Kirti-stambha etc., in India.
• They are also traced back to megalithic burial practices[1], where the dead were buried or cremated with their favourite goods. Where, the heroes are found to fighting with tiger, horses, elephants, camels etc. Battle field scenes on the land and sea[2] have also been depicted.  
• Considering the vast area of India of the ancient period, the location of such sites spread from Central Asia from the west to Cambodia in the east and down south to Sri Lanka.
• During the last 5500 YBP period, many changes have been taken place and therefore, the available material evidence at present and the accounts recorded in the secondary sources have to be relied upon.
• A big or identifiable stone of weight is placed at the place, where the last rites were conducted, so that the spot could be identified, remembered and yearly rites conducted.
• Irrespective of place, culture and belief system, such tradition, and liturgical practices appeared to have been taking place in the world[3].

Hero-stone, memorial stone or stele in the context: For a comparative study, the western practices are also should be taken into consideration. In the Western context, a stele or occasionally stela, is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than its width, erected in the ancient world as a monument. The surfaces of the stele often have text, ornamentation, or both and they are inscribed, carved in relief, or painted. A traditional Western gravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words “stele” and “stelae” are most consistently applied in archaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt, China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America. Incidentally, India is not mentioned here. A comprehensive and integrated study of the memorial stones is made, the connection among them could be noted. As this is depended upon the religious beliefs like soul, transmigration of soul, life after death, rebirth, karma and other related issues, generally, such belief system points to the East. It is well known that Hindu, Buddhist and Jains believed in them. As Buddhism was dominant during the first centuries and spread far and wide throughout the world, such ideas were also spread along with them[4]. The Pythagorean, Aesop’s fables[5] and other connections have already been accepted by the scholars[6]. Through Pythagoras, the concept soul, transmigration of soul etc., were transmitted to the west[7]. Thus, the commonality can be noted in the global perspective, in the memorial stone erection culture also.

Stone usage continues from Paleolithic to 21st century culture: Stone, forms of stone, stone structures, stone implements etc., have been a common feature of Indians used even today in 21st century. The grinding, crushing, pounding and milling processes are carried on by stones only, but with various forms and fitted with mechanical, electro-mechanical systems for mechanization. Domestic electrical appliances like – Mixies and grinders have been changing their names, sizes, shapes, colours and technology (mechanical, electrical, electronic), but stone cannot be replaced with any other thing[8]. Grinding characteristics of raw and parboiled rice were evaluated in various wet grinding systems, namely, mixer grinder, stone grinder and colloid mill[9]. The rotation of the stone is made vertical or horizontal with one or two or more rotating stones, but, stones continue to form part and parcel of such Domestic electrical appliances. Now, miniaturized kitchen stone tools are also made and sold in the market. Thus, the usage of stone has been part and parcel of man since the Paleolithic age.

Lithic form and size may vary, but purpose did not change: Coming to burial, the other forms are studied. A menhir, standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone also comes under this category. Here, menhir = man + hir = man + tall = tall man or man of repute, thus, a person did something marvellous and thus to be remembered. In the European context, they are called as cromlech (ring of standing stones), dolmen[10] (type of single chamber megalith tomb), henge (type of Neolithic earth work), stone circle etc., conveying and denoting the same depending upon the language and area. As the Paleolithic man and society also believed that man had rebirth and he would be reborn etc., they arranged such stone structures aligning with the cardinal points. Or the sacrificial days had to be remembered once or twice in a year and thus, the near and dear used to come there and pay homage to their fathers, forefathers etc.  In Buddhist rituals, stone circles were used that is pointed out below. As these structures continued to exist for many millions or thousands of years, they would have been subjected to disturbances. Particularly, the grave goods would have been taken away by the categories of tomb raiders and grave looters. Whatever left was discovered by the local village people and archaeologists and studied by the researchers.

For whom the stones were erected?: Researchers on Hero-stones have studied about the cause of erecting memorial stones for the people as follows[11]:

• people who died to protect their livestock from theft; while retrieving it after the attack
• people involved themselves were killed in cattle raiding
• people who died while defending their community and ruler from external attack; people died on the onslaught of a stronghold
• people who died to defend women and children
• people devoured by wild animals, most commonly tigers;
• people who freed the village from the threat of wild animals and died thereafter,
• people who died after a snake bite
• people who committed religious suicide
• women who died in pregnancy or childbirth / suicide victims.
• The warriors / soldiers who sacrificed their lives for saving their villages, towns, state, or territories.

For all these categories, hero-stones / memorial stones were erected and venerated to glorify their sacrifice.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

---

[1] The Megalithic burials have pits or stone chambers or rock-cut chambers or urns or sarcophagi, etc., externally marked by either one or a combination of more than one of the features like cairn-heap, cairn-circle, stone-circle, kodakkal, topikkal, menhir, etc., and some of the burial types like dolmen are partly buried and partly above the ground and pit burials and urn burials, in some cases, do not have any surface markers. At several sites monuments such as menhirs, kodakkals  and dolmens are without any artefactual remains and appear to be symbolic.

[2] The hero stones kept at the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, Goa (12^th century CE) and Eksar (11^th century CE) in Mumbai have the depiction of naval warfare. The Old Goa hero stones belong to the Goa Kadambas who ruled Goa from 950-1300 CE. The Eksar hero stones were depicted during the reign of king Bhoja of Malwa in 1020 CE.

Tripati, Sila. Ships on hero stones from the west coast of India,  International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35.1 (2006): 88-96.

[3] Construction of tomb, tomb worship etc., of the day have not changed much with all modern day embellishments, as the stone parts of the tomb are manufactured in the factories with sophisticated machinery.

[4] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[5] Aesop’s Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE and they were imitated from the Panchatantra stories of India.

[6] Richrd von Garbe,  The Philosophy of Ancient India (2nd ed.; Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1899).

…………………………, India and Christianity: An Investigation of Religious and Historical Connections, Tübingen, Germany: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1914.

[7] Arthur B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads, ed. C. R. Lanman nHarvard Oriental Series,” Vol. XXXII; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925).

[8]  The manufacturers of mixies and grinders of different categories have R & D sections, where research has been going on about the usage of stones, their sizes and shapes, weight etc. The  body might have been changed with metal sheet, plastic, fibre-glass and other materials for cost-effective, the stones cannot be replaced.

[9] Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., &  Subramanian, R. (2008). Grinding characteristics and batter quality of rice in different wet grinding systems. Journal of food engineering, 88(4), 499-506.

[10] A dolmen  or portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or “table”. Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone “skeleton”.

[11] Trinco, Letizia. Heroes Beyond the Texts: Sacrifice, Death, and After life, in the Iconography of Southern Maharashtra’s Hero-Stones.” Indologica Taurinensia 40 (2014): 341-363.

Mulabaagilu or Mulbhagal Mutt of Srirangam – The Abode of Vishnu on the Earth

Mulabaagilu or Mulbhagal Mutt of Srirangam – The Abode of Vishnu on the Earth

Location of the Mulbaghali Mutt – Google Map is shown in two directions. The Main Mutt roof is in blue colour and the adjacent modern building roof has been in reddish colour.

The front portion of the Mulabhagali Mutt

The board showing the details of the Brindavans inside the Mutt.

Mulabaagilu or Mulbhagal Mutt of Srirangam: Mulabaagilu is a town and taluk headquarters of Mulabaagilu taluk in the Kolar district in the state of Karnataka, India. Mulabagilu is located at 13.17°N 78.4°E. It has an average elevation of 827 metres (2,713 feet). It lies just off the National Highway 75 as the easternmost town of the state and a hill landmark. “Mulabagilu” (ಮುಳಬಾಗಿಲು) comes from the word mualabagilu, which means the “eastern door” in the native Kannada language. Mulabagilu was supposedly the easternmost frontier of (and thereby the entrance to) the state of Mysuru.  Mysore has close contacts with the Tamilagam Kings like Tanjore, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram and others. The movement of sages, poets, musicians, artists and others had been very common[1]. It is believed according to the Madhwa sampradhya that the Hanuman temple here was installed by Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, after the Mahabharata war (3102 BCE)[2]. Sage Vasishta is believed to have installed the idols of the main deity Srinivasa, Padmavati and Rama-Sita-Lakshmana. The history of Mulabagilu was compiled by Benjamin Lewis Rice, in his book “The Gazetteer of Mysore” (1887). In modern history, Mulabagilu is mentioned as the site of the Battle of Mulabagilu on 4^th October 1768, during the First Anglo-Mysore War. Incidentally, there has been connection of the Madhwa Samparadhaya Saints with Srirangam.

The Old Mutt structure was demolished and the pictures show the demolition activities with the JCB machine. The old compound wall can be seen at the backside.

The pillars, lintels and other parts of the Old Mutt.

The JCB machine worked day and night to complete the work.

Sripadaraya (c.1422-1480): Sripadaraya or Lakshminarayana Tirtha was a Dvaita philosopher, scholar, composer and the pontiff of the Madhvacharya mutt at Mulbagal. He worked here and then moved to Mulabhagile, Karnataka. He is widely considered as the founder of the Haridasa movement along with Narahari Tirtha. His songs and hymns, written under the nom-de-plume of “Ranga Vitthala”, contain the distillation of Dvaita principles infused with mysticism and humanism. He has also been credited with the invention of the Suladi musical structure and composed 133 of them along with several kirtans. He was the advisor of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya and mentored the young Vyasatirtha.  He has also authored a commentary on Jayatirtha’s Nyaya Sudha called Nyayasudhopanyasa-Vagvajra.

The rooms, where we used to stay have gone and disappeared……

All have been the evidences of the past, now bygone!

The medieval wall and the Temple Gopura can be seen at the backside of the Mutt site under demolition.

Mulbhaglu Mutt important for the Madhwa community: The Mutt at Srirangam is called as Mulabhagal Mutt, Mulbhagal Mutt, Mulabhgalu Mutt, Mulubhagal Mutt etc., 41. South Chittirai Street, has been the centre for the Madhwas, the followers of Madhwacharyas for religious activities. It is situated very near to the Sri Ranganatha Temple. Particularly, the “Antyesti” Samskara, the last rites, rituals and ceremonies for the departed souls are carried on systematically by well-versed Pundits, prohits and priests and trained in such liturgical practices. I have been visiting this Mutt for the last more than 50 years, as our relatives used to conduct rites here and I find that it has been one of the oldest and historical places of Srirangam. However, my recent visit in 2021 made me uncomfortable and distressed to note that the traditional building has been demolished and a new vertical building has come up, just like any modern building appears nowadays. It has three parts – one multi-purpose hall on the LHS, the Mutt at the Centre and another hall at RHS for religious and ceremonial activities. The cental building has a underground parking place, now used as a dining hall, oly for the Mut religious purposes.

The medieval wall and the Temple Gopura can be seen at the backside of the Mutt site under demolition.

The rooms

The Vigrahas…

The Acharya Parampara: The old structures – traditional stone pillars, lintels and other parts have been missing, granite and tiled covered floors and walls have been replaced with. Actually, they must have been retained, i.e, the original structure dated to some 400 years back, must have been retained and the modern structure could have been built over it as a protective cover or for utilizing the space without affecting according Agama or other Sastras binding. The three Brindavans stand in the RHS hall of Sri Padaraja, Sri Vysaraja and Swarnavarna Parashuramatheertha. The Guruparampara goes like this – Swarnavarna Theertha[3] -> Sripadaraya Theertha -> Vysaraya Theertha[4] -> Vijayendra Theertha[5]. Interestingly, Brindavans of these Gurus, Saints or Philosophers are also found inside the Sri Ranganatha Temple. It is also known that some Brindavans are found inside the Srirangam Temple. Generally, they are unnoticed by the ordinary devotees, but, they have clear evidences of carved sculptures peculiar to the Madhwa Sampradhya with Anjaneya Sculptures and Sri Rama-Sita-Lakshmana nearby.

The LHS building was completed…

The Brindavan…

The Contribution of Vyasaraja (c.1460–1539): Vyasaraja has installed hundreds of Anjaneya Idols all over the medieval Thamilagam. The Brindavans – either the tombs of the Madhwa Saints or the earth taken from the tombs, characterized and known as “Mruthika” – have been built to commemorate the association of them with the specific places, where, they have carried their work. Thus, the Brindavans found inside the Srirangam Temple could convey their services to the Temple. Sri Vyasaraja was a great saint of that time and follower of the Dwita philosophy of Sri Madvacharya. He was the Rajaguru for both Saluva and Tuluva dynasties of Vijayanagaram. He was instrumental in the renovation of many temples that were destroyed during the onslaught of Malik kafur. He was a great devotee of Sri Hanuman and had built many temples for Sri Anjaneya. He also solved the boundary dispute between the Srirangam Temple and Tiruvanaikkovil by constructing “Ellai Anjaneyar Koils.” It is customary of Vijayanagara to mark the boundary of villages with a temple for Sri Anjaneya. With no exception, Sri Vyasaraja who was also a devotee of Sri Hanuman had built four Hanuman temples at these four places marked as boundaries of Srirangam. Now, only three of them are in existence and the fourth one at Ellaikarai Mandapam had been missing. This is how the historical evidences are missing and history is also forgotten and misinterpreted.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

24-12-2021

The Three Brindavans inside the Mulbhala Mutt, Srirangam..

The Three Brindavans inside the Mulbhala Mutt, Srirangam..without coverings…..

The Narasimha sculpture

The Anjaneya sculpture

---

[1] The Temple building and renovation activities brought the people of Maharastra, Karnataka, Andhra and Tamilagam together. Such tradition had been continuing since the Sangam period, as the Sangam literature men such interaction of the people for metallurgy and stonework.

[2] Vibhshina had reportedly installed the Idol at Srirangam and that spot became sacred to be converted into a Great Vaishnavite Kshetra, the Bholuga Vaikuntam on the Earth. As Post Sangam literature mentions (Silappathikaram) about the Srirangam, it is evident that the tradition has been about 2000 years old.

[3] His real name is Parashurama Tirtharu and was regularly involved with Srihari Chintane and Japa tapa.  As such, his body was shining like gold and hence called as Swarnavarna Tirtharu. He helped the kings in solving the problems faced by them. Once he went to see Sri Purushottama Tirtharu, the mathadipathi of Abboor Matha in a pallakki.  On his way, he saw an 8 years old boy who was grazing the cows.  The boy was none other than Sri Lakshminarayana Muni who took the ashrama from Swarnavarna Tirtharu and later got the title Sripadarajaru.

[4] Vyāsatīrtha (c.1460–1539), also called Vyasaraja or Chandrikacharya, was a Hindu philosopher, scholar, polemicist, commentator and poet belonging to the Madhwacharya’s Dvaita order of Vedanta. As the patron saint of the Vijayanagara Empire, Vyasatirtha was at the forefront of a golden age in Dvaita which saw new developments in dialectical thought, growth of the Haridasa literature under bards like Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa and an amplified spread of Dvaita across the subcontinent. Three of his polemically themed doxographical works Nyayamruta, Tatparya Chandrika and Tarka Tandava (collectively called Vyasa Traya) documented and critiqued an encyclopaedic range of sub-philosophies in Advaita,[note 1] Visistadvaita, Mahayana Buddhism, Mimamsa and Nyaya, revealing internal contradictions and fallacies. His Nyayamruta caused a significant stir in the Advaita community across the country requiring a rebuttal by Madhusudhana Saraswati through his text, Advaitasiddhi.

[5] Vijayīndra Tīrtha (also known as Vijayendra Tīrtha) (c.1514-1595) was a Dvaita philosopher, dramatist and dialectician. A prolific writer and an unrelenting polemicist, he is said to have authored 104 treatises expounding the principles of Dvaita and defending it against attacks from the contemporary orthodox schools of Vedanta. He held the pontifical seat at Kumbakonam under the rule of Thanjavur Nayaks where he participated in polemical discussions with the Advaita philosopher Appayya Dikshita Inscriptions from that era record grants of villages received by Vijayindra for his triumph over theological debates. Legend ascribes to his mastery over 64 arts and his erudition, writes Sharma, “is evident from a few of his works bearing on Purva Mimamsa, Nyaya and Kavya literature”

Sri Vijayendra Teertha Brindavan at Kumbakonam

Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta – A Historical Perspective – International Interdisciplinary Conference – Third and Fourth days proceedings and Valedictory function [3]

Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta – A Historical Perspective – International Interdisciplinary Conference – Third and Fourth days proceedings and Valedictory function [3]

KVR sitting with others -12-08-2019 PPT presentation

In F-50 hall, many seminars and conferences are being held. Of late, the projector fixed for PP presentation stopped working and the organizers of the seminars and conferences have arranged it. Anyway, it is well known for many years and the VCs, and other University authorities, who here for inauguration and valedictory functions have not bothered about it. Coming to this “International” conference, the power-point presentations were postponed one or other reason since first day. It was intriguing to note that though, they claimed that it was “International conference” and all, they could not arrange it. Then, on 12^th morning, it was arranged, however, the PP presentation was allowed after the first session and it included papers to be presented in English also.

12-08-2019 PPT presentation. J. Nilakesi

The presenters were –

1. Natarajan – he was trying to explain the concept, precept of Siddhanta and so on. His talk had been so abstract, that too, without PP, the audience could not follow him. In fact, he was presenting paper for the second time.
2. J. Nilakesi – presented on the persecution of the Jains in Madurai. I have already listened to and seen her PP presentation earlier at two places[1]. Most of the pictures / photos are available in internet. There was no historical evidence for the impalement of Jains at Madurai after any religious debate. The Tamil writers have been exaggerating the literary narratives for such imagined persecution. Incidentally, the Jains were following black magic techniques and applied on Dharmasena / Appar during their attempts to murder him. Tamil writers have not given any details about the people killed in Tamilnadu with their black magic practices to covert. A Jain set fire to the house of Sambandar and he immediately converted into a disease and made it to inflict the Jain King, as severe stomach ache. Thus, they were indulged in many methods to kill him. Moreover, the sculptures, temple paintings and other evidences were of later period dated to 17^th-18^th In fact, Nilakesi herself says that the poetic references could not amount to actual persecution.
3. Purushothaman – he tried to claim that Siva worship was there in Sumeria. He was showing the Akkadian seals and script and straight away telling that they are Tamil. His attempt to sing the Gilgamesh poem in Tamil claiming it as Tamil has been far-fetched. His paper on the same topic is available here[2]. Before him, one Dr K. Loganathan used to talk about it and I saw his video and other postings. So it is evident that he was repeating the same.
4. Radha – she just tried to canvass for the book, she published. Her claim that she could see the holy ashes on the forehead of Agastya, when Kumarikkandan was just sinking!
5. V. Ramakrishna Rao – presented his paper, “Siva temples in Brahmadesa, Saivism in Burma and Siva icons in Myanmar” with PPT showing as to how Saivism flourishing in Brahmadesam and then disappeared  with the rise of Theravada Buddhism. Burma was known as Brahmadesa in ancient times, Swarnadwipa in medieval period and Myanmar now with clear change of culture, tradition, heritage and civilization. The Brahma worship that existed till medieval period was wiped out with the rise of Buddhist-tantric mixed worship. The Siva-Vishnu faith was made to get reduced with the introduction of Theravada Buddhism during the medieval period. With the introduction of military rule, the Indian Hindu faith has been reduced to minority level and by that time most of the temples and images destroyed and the left out consigned to museums and unknown collectors.

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao – presented his paper, “Siva temples in Brahmadesa, Saivism in Burma and Siva icons in Myanmar” with PPT

Tirumurthy sculptures at Burma, Thaton.

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao – presented his paper, “Siva temples in Brahmadesa, Saivism in Burma and Siva icons in Myanmar” with PPT

Can the debate of philosophy or the mantras vs black magic could be taken as historical evidence for impalement?: In the case of Nilakesi’s presentation, several poinys have to be clarified in the context. The legend of impalement of the Jain monks at Madurai has had a lasting impact on the popular Tamil Saiva constructions of Jains from the Cola period onward. As Paul Dundas (1992, 109-110) points out[3], while there is no record of an actual massacre having taken place, the legend (at some point in the tradition the number of Jains who were impaled got fixed at eight thousand) might well be a representation of the triumph of Agama Saivism over Jain asceticism, with the stakes of impalement perhaps representing the Vedic yupa sacrificial pot. Alternatively, the narrative may be read as a construction of an actual exodus of Jains from Madurai area on account of persecution of economic hardship, as indicated by a gap of about six hundred years in the inscriptions at the Jain monastic site in Madurai (Ibid). The legend itself is reiterated with embellishments in post-Nambi hagiographical narratives, and reinterpreted by major medieval Tamil poets (e.g., Ottakkuttar, in Takkayakapparani). Later interpreters vary in their opinions as t Campandar’s role I the impalement. Nampi does nt say whether Campantar actively participated in the impalement decree, but, celebrates it as a glorious (and gory) climax to Campantar’s career as vindicator of Saivism. Similar views emerge in the accounts in the local Puranas of Madurai (e.g, Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam), following which the event is reenacted as part of the annual festival at the Minakshi-Siva temple in Madurai.

The mass impalement of Jains a myth

The sculptures found at Samanatham, mentioned as “Samana.ratham,” but the figures depict different aspects. The persons carrying dogs on the shoulders, from the ground…sitting on flat type staff or similar thing…

The mass impalement of Jains a myth

Can the narrative that Campantar became Murugan to exterminate the Jains?: Cekkilar himself appears to be uncomfortable with the idea of Campantar’s complicity in such gruesome punishment as impalement. Not content with making the Jains voluntarily choose their mode of death, endure defeat, and thus perforce accept their sentence, Cekkilar downplays Campantar’s involvement in the execution of the sentence as well. Quite opposite is true of Cekkilar’s near contemporary, the Cola court-poet Ottakkuttar, who includes a description of the Madurai Jain controversy in his Takkayakapparani, which portrays Siva as a war hero on the model of the Tamil king of the late classical texts. Morein consonance with the majority of Tamil Saiva writes of the age of the imperial Colas (Nilakanta Satri, 1935; Shulman 1985), Ottakkuttar (Takkayakapparani 6: 169-220) portrays Campantar as an incarnation of the war god Murukan-Skanda, the son of Siva, who has been born on earth to exterminate the Jains[4].

The mass impalement of Jains a myth

This is found in the Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram, but, it cannot be equated with the “Kazhuvetral.”

13-08-2019 – Fourth day proceedings [Tuesday]: The first session was presided over by ………………..

1. Lemuria – she read a paper based on the stories of M. Aranganathan. Definitely, it had nothing to do with the theme of the conference. Ironically, she was telling the stories without any impact on the audience.
2. The next paper presenter – a lady – who confessed openly that she did not know anything as “Saiva siddhanta.” She was thinking that Saivam means vegetarian food. Anyway, she started talking about “Saivam and hunger, disease etc.”
3. Arulambal read her paper about the “antiquity of Saiva literature.”
4. P. Ravi – read his paper on “Humanism in Saiva Siddhanta.”
5. Vignesh – delved upon ne Iswaramurthy Muthpillai……
6. Balaguru – read on “Saiva Siddhanta in Tirukkural.” Already many papers were read on the same topic, but, none could bring out anything new, except repeating the same.
7. Sriram – was reading his paper about the existing of many souls……
8. Balasigamani – was reading important paper on refutation, repudiation and negation of other philosophies[5].
9. Revathi – read her paper on the “Sanga literature and environment,” however, touching upon Periyapuranam.

Incidentally, the presidents of the sessions, typically appreciating the papers and the paper presenters without caring for the subject contect etc., of course, they were also not worried about the repetition, mechanical reading, factual inaccuracies etc.

Thirumuruga Kirupanandha Variyar Endement lecture 2019-20 was delivered by Sadhu Shanmuga Adigalar, Pazhani Sadhu Swamigal Mutt, Pazhani.

Why Saiva Siddhanta has not been popular beyond Tiruttani?: Thirumuruga Kirupanandha Variyar Endement lecture 2019-20 was delivered by Sadhu Shanmuga Adigalar, Pazhani Sadhu Swamigal Mutt, Pazhani. First he explained briefly as to how the Pazhani Saiva conference was held, for which lakhs were spent. There was a crowd of about 1,000 and only on third day, the crowd dwindled down. He briefed how Tamilnadu was ruled by the  foreigners and rulers other states…for 780 years; by 1335 the Pandya rule ended, by 1730 the Chola rule; and so on. In spite of the support for Saiva siddhant, it could not grow and spread beyond Tiruttani, because, it is considered that it belongs to one particular caste[6]. The religion should not be restricted to caste, but, castes should be brought together within a religion[7]. S. Radhakrishnan has no accepted Saiva Siddhanta as a separate philosophical system, as it appearedas Vishistadvaida. He referred tone book, “Indiya tattuva gnanam” written by one Yazhpanam writer and urged that it should be read. He was also referring to Somasundara Naicker, who reportedly had argument with Swamii Vivekananda about Saiva Siddhanta.  If Brahmam could be visualized as –

1. Very Big
2. Big
3. In between
4. Small
5. Very Small

Then, that “In Between” should be taken as “Saiva Siddhanta,” thus, he concluded.

Mutts should run schools and colleges: Prof Deva Natarajan memorial endowment lecture 2018—19 was delivered by Sivagnana Balaya Swamigal, Pommapuram mutt, Mailam[8].  He could not come on 10-08-2019, as he was not feeling well. Even, today, he came late, when Sadhu Shanmuga Adigalar, Sadhu Shanmuga Adigalar, started delivering his address. He stressed that Mutts should do social service, as the Karnataka mutts have been doing. He attended the last rites ceremony of respectable Shivakumara Swami who died at the age of 111. His mutt has been running schools and colleges giving education to all and therefore, the people of Karnataka respected him as “Walking God.” In the same way, Taminadu mutts should give education by running schools and colleges and also teaching religion.  They should also do social services.

Saiva siddhanta conference 13-08-2019 – KVR valedictory

KVR interacting with a scholar- Valedictory function

As the Judges were to come by 1.50 pm, Saravanan started talking about “eating,” describing as to how many came to Pazhani Conference for eating. Even the service was over, people were coming to eat and therefore, he was shouting at them “”…..*^^&$%$$^&…… Ghee was served in such a way that it was slipping down through the hands and the eaters were licking it. He was criticizing the organizers who announced about “Guru puja,” to be conducted daily this month, implying that food would be served on all those days. People come for eating, if food is served more crowd would come………..in this way he was criticizing using harsh and other words $%&^&^*&##$# also.

13-08-2019 Valedictory two Swamis and three judges.book release

13-08-2019 Valedictory – audience.

13-08-2019 Valedictory two Swamis and three judges.pandiyan

13-08-2019 Valedictory – audience

13-08-2019 Valedictory two Swamis and three judges

K. Pandian, Cotroller of Exams, University of Madras: He explained his experience since childhood as to how he lived in temple environment with the conduct of celebrations all round the year. He mentioned “Hindu” religion and elaborated his personal experience.

Hon’ble Thiru. Justice M. Govindaraj would give presidential address: He did not talk.

Hon’ble Thiru. Justice  R. Mahadevan valedictory address: He briefed about Saiva Siddhanta.

Hon’ble Thiru. Justice K. Kalyanasundaram felicitation address: He did not alk.

 The certificates were distributed by the judges and they went away, they were distributed by the two Matathipatis to all.

Saravanan informed that in 13 sessions about 110 papers were read.

With vote of thanks, the conference was over.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-08-2019

[1] Last one was at SIC-3 held at IIT, Madras December 2018. https://youtu.be/yvEY5GQ78wo; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvEY5GQ78wo&feature=youtu.be

[2] https://www.academia.edu/33637869/SUMERIAN_AND_TAMIL_-_A_COMPARISON_AND_STUDY_WITH_REFERENCE_TO_A_TRANSLITERATED_TEXT_AND_STANDARD_TRANSLATIONS

[3] Paul Dundas, The Jains, Routledge, London, Second edition, 2002, pp.127-128.

[4] I. Peterson, Sramanas against Tamil way, in John E. Cort, Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, State University of New York Press, 1998, pp.181-182.

[5]  Interstingly, Siddhanta Marabhu, Siddhanta Marabhu Kandanam, Siddhanta Marabhu Kandana-Kandanam, Siddhanta Marabhu Kandana-Kandana-Kandanam were not all discussed. Of course, many of them may not be knowing also.

[6]  This is only because of the domination of Vellalars, Mudaliars, Pillais and so on, who have been the Saivites. Now, only, because of eating non-vegetarian food and other practices, more divisions have been crept into, among themselves. Gounders, though they claim as “vellalar,” other communities do not accept.

[7] Just like a slogan, they repeat this, speaker by speaker, but, they exhibit explicit casteism, anti-feelings etc., abut other castes and communities.

[8] It is intriguing to note that his name figured in the selling of temple land to Christians where the Senji Kothandaramar temple stands. As I was wrking in Tiruvannamalai at that time, I could interact with Sri Ramanuja Dasar, who was fighting for the reclamation of the temple land.

Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta – A Historical Perspective – International Interdisciplinary Conference – Second and third days proceedings [2]

Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta – A Historical Perspective – International Interdisciplinary Conference – Second and third  days proceedings [2]

11-08-2018 – the second day proceedings [Sat] – first session: Lalita presided over the  session.

1. Lakshmi [Malaysia] – Worship during the period of Appar – people were divided based on gothra, kula etc. “Agathava vazipadu” was there.
2. Venkata Kalaiyarasi – Sivavakkiyar – there was problem in fixing the date of Sivavakkiyar as to in 6t or 10^th cent CE. Otherwise, the points discussed were of repetitive nature.
3. Natarajan – Sivanjana botham – explained how Swethana Perumal became Meykandar and compiled the work “Siva njana botham” in Tamil.
4. Lalita – Sivavakkiyar – also repeated the same points already talked and discussed.
5. Anur Devi – Thirumular and the present-day issues. She tried to address the current problems and crimes involving school children and college students. Her approach has been relevant and important.
6. Asin Visapa [Nepal] – Saiva philosophy of Pasupathi, Nepal. When I asked about the animal sacrifice offered during the festivals at Nepal and how it could be compatible with the ahimsa concept of Saiva siddhanta, Natarajan, the advocate and Saravanan tried to argue that animal sacrifice continue even today. Saravanan also tried to argue, but, when I asked about ahimsa to be followed by the Saiva siddhantiats, he calmed down realizing the contradiction. When I pointed out that is against the tenets of Saia Siddhanta, then, they kept quite obviously realizing the issue.

As usual Saravanan commented that those who did not want to sit and listen to papers could  leave the hall, so that Siddha would come and occupy the chairs! He was also telling that Woman-Siddhar Chakkaraiyammal had the power of flying! V. Kalyanasundaram in his book had noted about it. 

Audience during the session

Second session: The presided over person talked about, “Saiva Siddhanta in Periya Puranam.”

Sacrifice, non-violence, killing and Saiva siddhanta: The delegate from Annamalai University, but claimed a “Delegate from Nepal” presented paper of Pasupati of Nepal, philosophy and related issues. After presentation, I asked how the sacrifice offered there at Nepal would be compatible with the Saiva siddhanta followed here. While he was explaining why sacrifice was offered, S. Natarajan intervened that sacrifices were offered here in Tamilnadu also. Then, I asked him [Natarajan], “that means, Saiva siddhanta accepts killing and non-violence?” Immedately, Saravanan ran to the stage and started  telling that all religions accept sacrifice and so on. I reminded that when Saiva siddhanta promotes non-killing, non-violence, Jivakarunya and all how sacrifice was justifiable, was my question, he was harping upon that all religions accept sacrifice.

Life, Karma, body, death and life after death differ among the world religions: Manickam presented a paper on “The concept of Karma among the World Religions.” He revealed that his paper was different, but Saravanan suggested and urged to present a paper on this topic. In  general, he pointed out the  concepts of life, atma, body etc., but, when the western religions came, he was confused. Therefore, finally, I raised the issue and clarified that the concepts of Judaism, Christianity and Islam cannot be equated with the Eastern religions.  They believe that their bodies have to be entombed and preserved, so that when the day of judgment comes, their bodies would be raised, resurrected, gone to heavens and with the grace of God, they get punishment or redemption. Saravanan tried to show that Vallalar also had such view.

audience on the second day, second session

audience on the second day, second session- another view

Without knowing the meaning of “अक्ष” wrong interpretation given: The lady who presented a paper on “pal varait teivam” was giving wrong meaning to the word “अक्ष” exposing herself  that neither she knw Sanskrit nor referred to any Sanskrit dictionary to know the meaning of it. When I pointed out that it was not correct, Saravanan intervened that I did not have any right to say so, as that was her opoinion! I again pointed out that I was objecting to her wrong meaning given to the word “अक्ष” and her further wrong interpretation given based on such wrongly perceived meaning. Saravanan was diverting the issue. Really, I was shocked to note the way the proceedings were going.

Third session: It was presided over by a person, who acted as “Vallalar” in Pothigai TV. The papers had been so general, repetitive, overlapping that the audience was made to get disinterested. As the list of papers was not given and the paper-presenters were also changed according their convenience, nothing could be tracked.

Fourth session – G. Ilango can be seen.

fourth session

Fourth session, audience

Fourth session: After lunch, the fourth session started with paper reading.

1. Arunagirinathar
2. Ilango –He was trying to differentiate Saiva sddhanta and Vedic worship of Siva. Emphacizing “Tamizhar samayam,” as if it is different from the religion followed by the Tamils, he was interpreting like a Marxist. Of course, he was mentioning Kausambai, Jha, R. S. Sarma and others. He was claiming that there was no India and therefore, no religion was there. Whereas, Tamil is the ancient language and thus the religion of Tamil was different. Following M.M. Adigal, it was interpreted that Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta takes the form of a polemical attack on Vedanta and Brahmanical Hinduism. Thus, without going into the facts of Sivagnanabotham e tc., he tried to show that Tamils were following different religion. After reading, I asked him, “Had India not been there, why Coloumbus was sent to discover “India”?, he was evading.
3. Without any historical evidences, he was talking like a Dravidian, DK-atheist type, that was intriguing.
4. The next speaker pointed out that Kumaragurubaran went to north and spread Saiva Siddhanta. In other words, he went there and conversed with the Delhi Sultan, evidently in Persian and thus, the myth that Saiva Siddhantis were confined to Tamilndu and knew only Tamil.
5. Selvi – Ramalinga Adigal – Tiruvarutpa
6. Tree-worship

Fifth session: Siva. Ilangovan presided over

1. Avvaiyar – the paper presenter was not specific about the chronology etc. , thus, she was reading without any specific time and place reference. The chair also pointed out the fact that there were more than one poet with the name “Avvaiyar” and therefore, all poems cannot be put in a particular period and interpret.
2. Veriyadal – Again, the paper presenter was making presentation without proper understanding of Sagam literature. She was not understanding the difference between murugu and muruga, velan and priest etc. In fact, when I raised the issue, there was interaction between Saravanan and myself. Obviously, he was trying to show that Murugan, Karttikeya, Subramanjan etc., are different and so on. But I restricted to the concepts of “Kandu-kandazhi-kadamba,”[1] “Se-Sey-Seyon”[2], and pointed out how the concepts were developed.
3. Manicavasakar
4. Priya- Stalapuranangkal

12-08-2018 – the third day proceedings [Sat] – first session: Lokanayaki presded over the session.

1. Vasuki Kannappan – Saiva Siddhanta in Tirukkural = Saiva Siddhanta in tirukkural. Incidentally, this has been the theme of more than one paper presenter and none has been bringing out anything new, instead of repeating the stuff that has been there already in hundreds of books. Ironically, they are also not refuting contradictory issues brought in and trying to misinterpret the wrks in question. Therefore, it is not know how these repetitive narratives would help for “Saiva Siddhanta in historical perspective”! Moreover, she came hurriedly, read her paper quickly and went away immediately on the pretext that she is getting “Kalaimamani” award tomorrow.
2. Vijayalakshmi – Vinai tirkkum Tiruppati – She was descfribing anf justifying the miracles without discussing about time and place. When Saravanan has been criticizing myth at one side and appfreciating at other side, she has not taken any effort to prve her stand scientifically or historically, so that such narratives are acceptable to the present-day youth and society.
3. Saraswati Iyyappan – Kannadasan padalkalil Mupporul – Ironically, she took the cinema songs of Kannadasan and tried to show that the Saiva Siddhanta principles are there in his songs by singing also. It is not known such “research” is required to approach “Saiva Siddhanta in historical perspective”!
4. Sandhya – Vallalarin sinthanaigal – i.e, the Saiva sidhanta thoughts are in Vallalar’ works. Ramalinga Adigal belongs to recent times and therefore, there is nothing surprise that it his works contain Saiva siddhanta. Incidentally, why he opposed Chidambaram and wanted to devlop Vadalur as parallel place of worship etc., are not discussed. If Chidambaram us not required for Saiva sddhanta, then, they could restrict their “Tamizhar saayam” within Vadalur.
5. Saroja – Manickavasakarin Ilakkiya sirappu, she tried to appreciate the literary beautiness of Manickavasakar’s Tiruvasakam.
6. Geetha – Karaikkaal Ammaiyarin padalkalil Mopprul. Again the same theme, she tried to show that the concepts of Pati, Pasu and Pasam are there in the songs of Karaikkal Ammaiyar.

 

Second session:  Chidambaram Balu presided over the session.

1. Veerasaivam – In general, the paper presenter explained the features of Saiva Siddhanta.
2. Arogya Mary – In general, the paper presenter explained the features of Saiva Siddhanta.
3. Sivapackiyam – How bakti is found in the literature of Saiva Sidddhata was explained.
4. Again one more paper on Veerasaivam.

The paper presenters have not been comfortable to explain, interpret and approach the tenets of “Veerasaiva” in Saiva siddhanta context. At many times, they were more interested in delving upon the conflicts between the Jains and the Veerasaivas.  Without Sanskrit and Kannada, the Verrasaiva literature cannot be read and researched. However, these pro-Tamil rsearchers have been trying to interpret from the secondary sources and therefore, they are get exposed, when fundamental issues like non-violence etc, are discussed in the context. Basava led a crusade against the caste system and popularized the worship of Siva in Karnataka. His followers were known as lingayats. They do not observe many Hindu practices like shraddha and the cremation of the dead. They bury the dead bodies. God cannot be realized just by recitation of the Vedas and other holy books. They suggest that only by renouncing desires, God be realized in the mind. Pampatticittar ciricises that Vedas, agamas, sastras, tantras and puranas are useless. Those who preach them do not know even their real meaning and such preachings are useless. They accuse the Vedas are written for earning the bread of some persons.

Aghorasivachrya approach towards Siddhanta[3]: Aghorasivacharya, the head of a branch monastery of the Amardaka order in Chidambaram, in 12^th twelfth century, decided to unite Sanskrit and Tamil Siddhanta traditions. Strongly refuting monist interpretations of Siddhanta, Aghorasivacharya brought a change in the understanding of Siva by reclassifying the first five principles, or tattvas (Nada, Bindu, Sadasiva, Isvara and Suddhavidya), into the category of pasa (bonds), stating they were effects of a cause and inherently unconscious substances, a departure from the traditional teaching in which these five were part of the divine nature of God. Aghorasiva was successful in preserving the Sanskrit rituals of the ancient Āgamic tradition. Thus, Aghorasiva’s Siddhanta philosophy is followed by almost all of the hereditary temple priests (Sivacharya), and his texts on the Āgamas have become the standard puja manuals. His Kriyakramadyotika is a vast work covering nearly all aspects of Shaiva Siddhanta ritual, including the daily worship of Siva, occasional rituals, initiation rites, funerary rites, and festivals.

Tamil Saiva Siddhanta cannot exist without original sources: In 13^th century, Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta, Meykandar, Arulnandi Sivacharya, and Umapati Sivacharya further spread Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta. Meykandar’s twelve-verse Śivajñānabodham and subsequent works by other writers, all supposedly of 13^th and 14^th  centuries, laid the foundation of the Meykandar Sampradaya (lineage), which propounds a pluralistic realism wherein God, souls and world are coexistent and without beginning. Siva is an efficient but not material cause. They view the soul’s merging in Siva as salt in water, an eternal oneness that is also twoness. Thus, by a thin difference, they cannot claim that they are different and they have nothing to do with the original literature, Vedas etc.The Dravidian ideology of anti-theses cannot be brought here to confuse.

Saiva Vellalas, non-Indian groups cannot confuse: Saiva Siddhanta today is practiced widely among the Saiva’s of southern India and Sri Lanka, especially by members of the Vellalar community. It is also prevalent among Saiva’s of the Tamil diaspora around the world. Prominent Siddhanta societies, temples and monasteries also exist in a number of other countries. The United States island of Kauai, a part of Hawaii, is home to the Saiva Siddhanta Peetam, an organization that promotes the union of worldwide Hindus, through a publication called Hinduism Today. This was founded by Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (1927–2001), which is currently under the auspices of Subramuniyaswami’s designated successor, Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami (1942- ). This lineage, which traces itself back to the Shaiva Siddhars of Northern Sri Lanka, adheres to the philosophical position that the original Shaiva Siddhanta as expounded by Tirumular, was and is monistic, and propagates this teaching as Advaita Saiva Siddhanta. The famous songs of the Sri Lankan Shaiva Sage, Shiva Yogaswami, attest to this view of the nature of God, Soul and World as being ultimately one. Ironically, because of modernization, they have vegetarian and non-vegetarian eating believers. Many times, it creates conflict in their rituals, rites and ceremonies.

Those researchers are interested in Agamas: Here, in this site – http://www.agamaacademy.org/digital-library-en.php, Kamika-agamam, Yogaja-agamam, Chintya-agamam, Purva Karanagma, Uttara Karnagama, Sahasra Agama, Suprabedhagama, Makutagama, Kiranagama, Vathula Suddakyam, Sarva Gnanottaram, Veera-ragomattoram, with kriya, tantra parts can be downloaded. Serious researchers should read them

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

15-08-2019

[1] During the Murugan conferences held,  as some groups tried to misinterpret, I seriously involved in reading Sangam literature and presented papers at the International Conferences conducted in the name of Kuruka-Sakanda-Kartikeya by Jouhn Samuel at Madras, Mauritius and Malaysia. I discussed with the issues with many Saivites, exchanged views through e-mail and personal correspondence. In fact, I personally met Dr Rajamanickkam, G. J. Kannappan, Raju Kalidass, Joh Samuel, Patrick Harrigan and others. I cannot bring all issues here, but, a similar type of attempt is made here in the context of Saiva Sddhanta.My papers on Mugan worship are here in the links – http://murugan.org/research/rao-zodiac.htm; https://archive.org/details/FireCultOfTheAncientTamilsK.V.RamakrishnaRao

[2]  Patrick Harrigan has published paers her e- http://murugan.org/research/rao.htm

[3] Dominc Godal et al [ed.], The Pachavarnastava of Agorasivacharya: A twelth century South Indian prescription for the visuaisation of Sadasiva and his retinue, French Institute, Pondicherry, 2005.