The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, IRS (Retd.,)

Guest Faculty and Research scholar,

Department of Ancient History and Archaeology,

University of Madras,  Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Cell: 98402 92065; e- mail: kopallerao@yahoo.co.uk

Stone memorial, rock memorial for the dead: The stones erected whether they were with or without inscriptions and sculptures to commemorate the death or dead persons particularly that of warriors, fighters or soldiers are considered as Hero stones.

• The origin of the commemorative stones are mentioned with different names and expressions – Nadukal, Virakal, Hero-stone, Satikal, Govardhan pillars, Chaya-stambhas, stele, Jaya-stamba, Kirti-stambha etc., in India.
• They are also traced back to megalithic burial practices[1], where the dead were buried or cremated with their favourite goods. Where, the heroes are found to fighting with tiger, horses, elephants, camels etc. Battle field scenes on the land and sea[2] have also been depicted.  
• Considering the vast area of India of the ancient period, the location of such sites spread from Central Asia from the west to Cambodia in the east and down south to Sri Lanka.
• During the last 5500 YBP period, many changes have been taken place and therefore, the available material evidence at present and the accounts recorded in the secondary sources have to be relied upon.
• A big or identifiable stone of weight is placed at the place, where the last rites were conducted, so that the spot could be identified, remembered and yearly rites conducted.
• Irrespective of place, culture and belief system, such tradition, and liturgical practices appeared to have been taking place in the world[3].

Hero-stone, memorial stone or stele in the context: For a comparative study, the western practices are also should be taken into consideration. In the Western context, a stele or occasionally stela, is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than its width, erected in the ancient world as a monument. The surfaces of the stele often have text, ornamentation, or both and they are inscribed, carved in relief, or painted. A traditional Western gravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words “stele” and “stelae” are most consistently applied in archaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt, China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America. Incidentally, India is not mentioned here. A comprehensive and integrated study of the memorial stones is made, the connection among them could be noted. As this is depended upon the religious beliefs like soul, transmigration of soul, life after death, rebirth, karma and other related issues, generally, such belief system points to the East. It is well known that Hindu, Buddhist and Jains believed in them. As Buddhism was dominant during the first centuries and spread far and wide throughout the world, such ideas were also spread along with them[4]. The Pythagorean, Aesop’s fables[5] and other connections have already been accepted by the scholars[6]. Through Pythagoras, the concept soul, transmigration of soul etc., were transmitted to the west[7]. Thus, the commonality can be noted in the global perspective, in the memorial stone erection culture also.

Stone usage continues from Paleolithic to 21st century culture: Stone, forms of stone, stone structures, stone implements etc., have been a common feature of Indians used even today in 21st century. The grinding, crushing, pounding and milling processes are carried on by stones only, but with various forms and fitted with mechanical, electro-mechanical systems for mechanization. Domestic electrical appliances like – Mixies and grinders have been changing their names, sizes, shapes, colours and technology (mechanical, electrical, electronic), but stone cannot be replaced with any other thing[8]. Grinding characteristics of raw and parboiled rice were evaluated in various wet grinding systems, namely, mixer grinder, stone grinder and colloid mill[9]. The rotation of the stone is made vertical or horizontal with one or two or more rotating stones, but, stones continue to form part and parcel of such Domestic electrical appliances. Now, miniaturized kitchen stone tools are also made and sold in the market. Thus, the usage of stone has been part and parcel of man since the Paleolithic age.

Lithic form and size may vary, but purpose did not change: Coming to burial, the other forms are studied. A menhir, standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone also comes under this category. Here, menhir = man + hir = man + tall = tall man or man of repute, thus, a person did something marvellous and thus to be remembered. In the European context, they are called as cromlech (ring of standing stones), dolmen[10] (type of single chamber megalith tomb), henge (type of Neolithic earth work), stone circle etc., conveying and denoting the same depending upon the language and area. As the Paleolithic man and society also believed that man had rebirth and he would be reborn etc., they arranged such stone structures aligning with the cardinal points. Or the sacrificial days had to be remembered once or twice in a year and thus, the near and dear used to come there and pay homage to their fathers, forefathers etc.  In Buddhist rituals, stone circles were used that is pointed out below. As these structures continued to exist for many millions or thousands of years, they would have been subjected to disturbances. Particularly, the grave goods would have been taken away by the categories of tomb raiders and grave looters. Whatever left was discovered by the local village people and archaeologists and studied by the researchers.

For whom the stones were erected?: Researchers on Hero-stones have studied about the cause of erecting memorial stones for the people as follows[11]:

• people who died to protect their livestock from theft; while retrieving it after the attack
• people involved themselves were killed in cattle raiding
• people who died while defending their community and ruler from external attack; people died on the onslaught of a stronghold
• people who died to defend women and children
• people devoured by wild animals, most commonly tigers;
• people who freed the village from the threat of wild animals and died thereafter,
• people who died after a snake bite
• people who committed religious suicide
• women who died in pregnancy or childbirth / suicide victims.
• The warriors / soldiers who sacrificed their lives for saving their villages, towns, state, or territories.

For all these categories, hero-stones / memorial stones were erected and venerated to glorify their sacrifice.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] The Megalithic burials have pits or stone chambers or rock-cut chambers or urns or sarcophagi, etc., externally marked by either one or a combination of more than one of the features like cairn-heap, cairn-circle, stone-circle, kodakkal, topikkal, menhir, etc., and some of the burial types like dolmen are partly buried and partly above the ground and pit burials and urn burials, in some cases, do not have any surface markers. At several sites monuments such as menhirs, kodakkals  and dolmens are without any artefactual remains and appear to be symbolic.

[2] The hero stones kept at the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, Goa (12^th century CE) and Eksar (11^th century CE) in Mumbai have the depiction of naval warfare. The Old Goa hero stones belong to the Goa Kadambas who ruled Goa from 950-1300 CE. The Eksar hero stones were depicted during the reign of king Bhoja of Malwa in 1020 CE.

Tripati, Sila. Ships on hero stones from the west coast of India,  International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35.1 (2006): 88-96.

[3] Construction of tomb, tomb worship etc., of the day have not changed much with all modern day embellishments, as the stone parts of the tomb are manufactured in the factories with sophisticated machinery.

[4] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[5] Aesop’s Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE and they were imitated from the Panchatantra stories of India.

[6] Richrd von Garbe,  The Philosophy of Ancient India (2nd ed.; Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1899).

…………………………, India and Christianity: An Investigation of Religious and Historical Connections, Tübingen, Germany: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1914.

[7] Arthur B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads, ed. C. R. Lanman nHarvard Oriental Series,” Vol. XXXII; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925).

[8]  The manufacturers of mixies and grinders of different categories have R & D sections, where research has been going on about the usage of stones, their sizes and shapes, weight etc. The  body might have been changed with metal sheet, plastic, fibre-glass and other materials for cost-effective, the stones cannot be replaced.

[9] Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., &  Subramanian, R. (2008). Grinding characteristics and batter quality of rice in different wet grinding systems. Journal of food engineering, 88(4), 499-506.

[10] A dolmen  or portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or “table”. Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone “skeleton”.

[11] Trinco, Letizia. Heroes Beyond the Texts: Sacrifice, Death, and After life, in the Iconography of Southern Maharashtra’s Hero-Stones.” Indologica Taurinensia 40 (2014): 341-363.

The excavation carried on at Chettimedu on the banks of Palaru basin in February 2024 by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madras

The excavation carried on at Chettimedu on the banks of Palaru basin in February 2024 by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madras

The located site is near a Church….

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Archaeology, excavation and findings in Tamilnadu: Archaeology, excavation, artefacts, dating of objects, Keeladi and such other words and expressions become “buzz words” in Tamilnadu[1], as politicians to ordinary people talk about at least once in a week or so. Some news would be coming in the media about something about all these things. Enthusiast explorers and others always come out with some stories that they “discovered” so-and-as sculpture, broken or abandoned idol here at some remote place and so on. However, they never bothered to investigate why they have been there in such conditions for many years. Ironically, many times, they are already known to local people, who are periodically visiting those places and villages and onlookers. In fact, 10 years back, already such “discovered” news would have been published in some local newspaper. Yet, such news is catchy and hence they are published again generously. If one has some friend in any media house, such news would appear immediately.

You-tube archaeology, history etc: To what extent, this news and coverages would create an impact on the general public, academicians and others have to be noted. Nowadays, You-tube hs also become famous and hence, such videos immediately swarm the cyberspace wying with each other and uploading exaggerated and hence misleading stuff also. Ironically, the you-tube enthusiast archaeologists do not bother about the science and technological facts, but, mix everything and make sensational stories. About the Chettimedu excavation, already, sensational videos have come up and attracting the viewers. Cyber plagiarism has been so easy, immediate and attractive, even the original creator, author and writer would be bombarded with such pirated and plagiarized stuff. The You-tube stuff would be of such nature that even academic snobbery would be afraid of. After Keeladi, some sort of cold war appeared to have between the Central and State archaeological departments.

About CABA: Recently, the Government reconstituted the Central Advisory Board Archaeology (CABA) over seven years since its last meeting. It is meant to strengthen contacts between the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and those in the field of archaeological research. The ASI re-constituted the board with the Culture Minister as the chairperson and including officials from the Culture Ministry and ASI, MPs, nominees of State governments, representatives of universities, scientists and experts on Indus Valley script among the members. It is revised for a period of three years. The board will meet once a year and its functions would include advising the Centre on “matters relating to archaeology” referred to by its members. It may also make suggestions on such matters for the consideration of the Government. It also set up a Standing Committee of the board to be chaired by the ASI D-G. It also allocates funds for each state related to the sites identified for excavation.

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University of Madras getting permission from the GOI: The GOI granted permission to carry out excavation at Chettimedu vide order dated 05-02-2024[2]. Based on this, the students and professors from the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras, proceeded to excavate at the sanctioned site.  As last year students could not get permission, they were debuted to different sites for getting excavation experience. This year, after getting permission, the students landed there with enthusiasm. Interestingly, a female student just delivering a baby landed there with the baby, taking a room to participate in the excavation. Her husband also accompanied and really, we have to appreciate the boldness of the girl to land there with her family to conduct an excavation. And there have been certain students with ill-health, yet they too joined the excavation.

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Excavation started yielding good results: As part of the excavation that began on February 5, four trenches (CTM 1, 2, 3 and 4) were laid to understand the cultural sequence of the site[3]. Among them, two have been completed and excavation at the other two is in the last stage[4]. Based on preliminary analysis, the material evidence and layers could be divided into five cultural periods:

1. First from the Neolithic period,
2. second from the Iron Age,
3. third from the Early Historic period,
4. fourth from the Early Medieval period, and
5. fifth from the Medieval period from when red ware dominated. A Ceylon Man-type coin from the Chola Period was collected from the last one.

They have unearthed an ancient burial site of a child with a pot beside it likely dating back to the Neolithic period, at Chettimedu Pathur in Chengalpattu. The professors involved in the excavation said it is rare to find burials dating back to the neolithic period, which is between 5000-1500 BCE, and added it would be sent for dating to various laboratories in India to ascertain its exact age.

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The location of Chettimedu: Chettimedu is situated about 14 kms northwest of Nerumbu, another site excavated by the Department of Archaeology, University of Madrasi 2022.

A still closer view also shows that the site is situated on the Palar basin, but, now surrounded by the houses.

As Palaru has dried up, the banks have been shrunk with urbanization and the number of houses have been increasing. However, the agricultural activities continue, as could be noted from the fields surrounding the houses. While the old temples are neglected or relegated to less importance, new temples have come up.

Now, ironically, the site has been located within the compound of a Church.

A closer view shows the site as follows

The aerial view shows the newly constructed church and the adjacent site chosen for excavation

University of Madras researchers have found a neolithic site with burial remains of a child at Chettimedu Pathur near Chengalpet, around 77km from Chennai, in what is being deemed a rare archaeological find[5]. Along with potsherds of burnished grey ware, a neolithic period characteristic, the researchers found rare Chola-era coins, potsherds of black slipped ware, black slipped ware with graffiti marks and bricks from the early historic period (Sangam era) and Iron age red slipped ware with designs in black[6].

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The site could be dated between 2500 BCE and 3500 BCE: The site, they say, could be between 2500 BCE and 3000 BCE[7]. “Only a few neolithic sites including Vellore, Dharmapuri, Salem have been reported so far. Even in those sites, burnished grey ware was not found. At this site, we found burnished grey ware with a burial which is very rare,” said Jinu Koshy, in-charge of excavation, department of ancient history and archaeology, University of Madras[8]. Burnishing involves polishing a pot using items with a hard smooth surface such as pebbles or leather for a shiny look. “Burnished ware has not been not found anywhere in the state except at Valasai in Vellore district,” he added.

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What are the objects recovered there: Initial exploration at Chettimedu Pathur showed hopscotch, bone tools and brickbats, different types of potsherds as well as burnished grey ware, burnished red ware, black and red ware, all-black ware, red slipped ware, red ware and coarse red ware. A few potsherds with graffiti marks were on the surface of the mound due to soil erosion and human activity[9]. “To understand the context of the cultural material at the site, we began excavating on Feb 5,” said J Soundararajan, associate professor, head-in-charge, department of ancient history and archaeology[10]. Four trenches were dug and preliminary analysis of the material evidence shows the layers could be from five different cultural periods. “Another important artefact is the red slipped ware having designs painted with black pigment and design resembling pottery types from the chalcolithic period, especially Malwa culture[11]. The painted type of potsherds found in Chettimedu Pathur could be from Iron Age,” he added[12].

About the skeletal remains: The skeletal remains found have become sensational and the media gave much publicity about it. Koshi said the child, whose remains have been found, could be between 9 years and 11 years of age as the mandibular deciduous first molar tooth hasn’t started to shed. The skeleton is in a north-south direction, with the head placed north and rest of the body oriented to south, the face turned towards west. “This practice has been followed since the protohistoric era and the pot near the skeleton is typical neolithic era pottery.” Researchers plan to date the site and extract DNA samples from skeleton or material in the pot.  

The study of skeletal remains important, before coming up with hypotheses and theories: The study of the human skeleton (osteology[13]) involves many scientific methods. It is said that paleaodemocratic method is there to date and analyze the skeletal remains[14]. Archaeologists have long used carbon-14 dating (also known as radiocarbon dating) to estimate the age of certain objects. Traditional radiocarbon dating is applied to organic remains between 500 and 50,000 years old and exploits the fact that trace amounts of radioactive carbon are found in the natural environment. Bones are one of the most common materials sent to accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) labs for radiocarbon dating. This is because the bones of animals or humans are often subjects of archaeological studies. A lot about the prehistoric era has been learned due to archaeological studies and radiocarbon dating of bones[15]. More in-depth information about old civilizations is also available due to radiocarbon dating results on bones. DNA method is also followed, but each method has limitations[16].

A reporter sitting by the side of the skeleton and explaining its age, date and all……..

Head and teeth of the skeleton.

teeth visible, closer view……

Lower jaw portion…..

while the study is not complete, the media has come out with sensational reports that the skeleton belongs to 5000 YBP period and so on! The You-tubers have been so exhilarating that they started circulating videos according to their own imagination. One such video claims that this excavation excels Keeladi and so on!

To what extent, the comparative dating can be applied and accepted?: Nowadays, archaeologists are trying to date the excavated by the comparative dating method. If the stratigraphical layers are not disturbed, then, artefacts that are found in successive undisturbed cultural layers can be dated relatively based on the principles of stratigraphy. The principle of cultural/archaeological stratification is fundamental and it plays a dominant role in archaeological investigations. The technique is borrowed from geology and applied in archaeology[17]. Sir Charles Lyell shaped the concept of stratigraphy in geology and published it in his outstanding book Principles of Geology by Sir Charles Lyell in 1830. There are certain basic laws and notions that are followed in identifying and studying stratigraphy. They are Laws of Superposition, Laws of Original Horizontality, Laws of Original Continuity and Laws of Faunal Succession. This concept was introduced in archaeology by the scholars like C.J.Thomsen, J.J.Worsaae, Kathleen M. Kenyon and Mortimer Wheeler.

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

19-03-2024.

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The reporter at the site explaining the excavated brick!

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[1] A buzzword is a word or phrase, new or already existing, that becomes popular for a period of time. Buzzwords often derive from technical terms yet often have much of the original technical meaning removed through fashionable use, being simply used to impress others.

[2] GOI order for excavation, Digital Mapping of Ancient Sites, dated 05-02-2024

https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/1715/AU456.pdf?source=pqals

[3] DtNext, In a first, Neolithic child burial site found in TN, DTNEXT Bureau|28 Feb 2024 7:00 AM  ( Updated:28 Feb 2024 7:01 AM.

[4] https://www.dtnext.in/news/tamilnadu/in-a-first-neolithic-child-burial-site-found-in-tn-770670

[5] Times of India, Madras univ researchers unearth neolithic site near Chengalpet, Ragu Raman / TNN / Updated: Feb 28, 2024, 09:37 IST,

[6] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/madras-univ-researchers-unearth-neolithic-site-near-chengalpet/articleshow/108059076.cms

[7] Indian Express, Tamil Nadu: Child burial site dating back to neolithic age unearthed in Chengalpattu, Updated on: 28 Feb 2024, 7:29 am

[8] https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2024/Feb/28/tamil-nadu-child-burial-site-dating-back-to-neolithic-age-unearthed-in-chengalpattu

[9] The Daily Guardiam, Neolithic child burial site discovered in TN, By: Latha Srinivasan, Updated on: February 29, 2024, 4:55 am IST.

[10] https://thedailyguardian.com/neolithic-child-burial-site-discovered-in-tn/

[11] BNN Breaking, Revolutionary Neolithic Child Burial Site Unearthed in Tamil Nadu: A First in State History, Hadeel Hashem, 27 Feb 2024 20:46 EST.

[12] https://bnnbreaking.com/world/asia/revolutionary-neolithic-child-burial-site-unearthed-in-tamil-nadu-a-first-in-state-history

[13] A subdiscipline of anatomy, anthropology, and paleontology, osteology is the detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, microbone morphology, function, disease, pathology, the process of ossification (from cartilaginous molds), and the resistance and hardness of bones (biophysics). Osteologists frequently work in the public and private sector as consultants for museums, scientists for research laboratories, scientists for medical investigations and/or for companies producing osteological reproductions in an academic context.

[14] Boldsen, Jesper L., George R. Milner, and Stephen D. Ousley. “Paleodemography: From archaeology and skeletal age estimation to life in the past.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 178 (2022): pp.115-150.

[15] Radio carbon Dating bones, https://www.radiocarbon.com/ams-dating-bones.htm

[16] Mays, Simon. The archaeology of human bones. Routledge, 2021. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315171821

[17] K. Rajan, Relative dating methods, e-Patashala, https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000829IC/P001688/M020081/ET/1493287698P07-M17-RelativeDatingMethods-ET.pdf

Note here, the reporter mentions that “it is believed to be from 5000 B.C….. “, that is 7000 YBP!