Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Paddy known in 2020 and husk thereafter in the excavations: The details given by the leading dailies (The Hindu, Times of India, Deccan Herald) continue as follows: When the MKU teams informed that the excess production of rice prompted the settlers to set sail in the seas to far-away land that are chronicled in several literature, the ASI report, which is yet to be made public, such reports were in circulation in the media. Therefore, it is evident that the excavators or some persons were leaking out findings partly, partially or otherwise for sensation or publicity. While carbonised paddy was found on the stratified surface at Agaram, it was found in an offering pot at Sivagalai[1]. These are to be sent to labs for carbon dating and identification of the grains – whether they are rice or millet or any other type of grain, and whether they were local grains or imported grains, as this will throw more light upon the life of the people during that period[2]. It may be recalled that it was the carbon dating done on a carbonised paddy grain in Sivagalai, which helped determine the age of the Porunai River civilization to 3200 years old, dating to 1155 BC[3].

Husk or hull of paddy of rice or millet – to be decided: However, it can be noted that the word paddy is used and it is related to rice only. Detailed analyses of plants and soil from Keeladi, a Sangam-era archaeological site near Madurai in Tamil Nadu, have shown that surplus production of rice in the area might have paved the way for the increase in trade 2,000 years ago, even as artefacts unearthed show that an industrialized urban civilization existed on the banks of River Vaigai[4]. However, certain researchers have already concluded this point and started publishing their papers also. The above finding by the French Institute of Pondicherry will be part of the final report of the first two phases of excavation at Keeladi, 12 km southeast of Madurai, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2014 and 2015[5]. As many as 5,800 artefacts were unearthed during the first two phases, but the ASI withdrew from the excavations after it announced that there was no “significant finding” in the third phase.

The press reporting was intriguing: The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) took over in 2017 and has conducted five phases of excavation so far. It is likely to launch the ninth round next year. Sources in the know told (Deccan Herald) that analyses conducted by a leading palaeontologist for the past few months have concluded that there was surplus rice production in and around Keeladi. “Artefacts found from Keeladi have indicated that trade ties flourished between inhabitants of Keeladi and other countries in the form of coins and other items. And the results of the analyses serve as further proof of the trade ties, and excess rice production played a crucial role,” the source added. Archaeologists who worked in Keeladi at different times told DH that overwhelming evidence of industries based on beads and terracotta having existed there were unearthed in the past eight years. “Surplus rice production might have flourished those industries as the inhabitants set out in the sea to unfurl their flag in far-away nations,” another source said. Here, that, “leading palaeontologist” has not been named and the “source” not revealed, yet, all these are appearing in the public domain.

Genetics liking Tamil merchants with Mesopotamia: Few researchers have already started publishing papers about the existence of Tamil merchants at Mesopotamia based on genetic interpretation[6]. They conclude, “Taken together, our mtDNA analysis shows that mtDNAs of these ancient Mesopotamians probably originated from Indian merchants. This, thus rules out the hypothesis that these samples comprise an ancient component (Upper Paleolithic) of macrohaplo group M involved in the founding of the Mesopotamian civilization. Therefore, the present study sheds new insights on the understanding of the origins of ancient Mesopotamian macrohaplogroup M lineages and the influence of Indian-Tamil merchants to Mesopotamian gene pool during trans-oceanic trade.” Had the “Dravidians” included Telugu, Kannada, Malayala and other languages, then, such merchants must have also existed there.  Perhaps, soon such claims be added.

The date of the rice husk awaited: The findings are significant as carbon dating of artefacts found in the fourth phase date back to 600 BCE, pushing the Sangam Era behind by three centuries than it was thought and making it contemporaneous with the Gangetic Plains Civilisation of north India. Rice husks found in burial urns at Konthagai, the burial site of Keeladi, over the three phases have also been sent for DNA analysis[7]. It may be noted that rice husks found in an urn in Sivagalai, another excavation site, dated back to 3,200 years[8] or 1155 BCE. Refusing to share any details, ASI’s Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna told DH in December 2022, that the report on the first two phases of the Keeladi excavation was in the final stages and is likely to be completed in a couple of months. “We have finished 90% of the work, but the report compilation is taking time. The diagrams are ready, and they have been incorporated into the report. We are exercising utmost caution and not rushing because of the sensitivities attached to the issue. One thing I can assure you is the report will be comprehensive,” Ramakrishna said.

The gap between IVC and Sangam to be narrowed down: The second source quoted said 23 samples have been sent for carbon dating analysis to Beta Analytical Lab in Florida, US and other institutes in the country and added that results of almost all of them have arrived except for a few. Nearly 18,000 artefacts, including over 2,200 from the latest phase, have been unearthed from Keeladi, bearing testimony to the rich urban life ancient Tamils had lived, thereby providing further archaeological evidence to the Sangam Literature. The archaeological findings have created a buzz with researchers and archaeologists in Tamil Nadu, calling them significant as they “narrow down” the gap between the Tamil urban settlements and the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC). However, they say “more evidence” should be forthcoming, while experts outside Tamil Nadu say there is no link between Keeladi and IVC. The latest excavation phase has led to the discovery of several artefacts, including dice made of ivory, an ivory gamesman, an iron knife, an antimony rod, copper pendants, ring wells, structures, rectangular-shaped ivory dice, beads, and terracotta figurines. The dating of all recovered objects have not been revealed.

Harvard Medical School, US experts at Madurai February 2023: Tamil Nadu’s first Ancient DNA Lab at the Madurai Kamaraj University has opened its doors for a team from the world-renowned David Reich Lab to assist it in extracting DNA from 30 human samples collected from burial urns unearthed during excavations with “minimal damage” as part of the efforts to provide scientific evidence to archaeological findings[9]. The team led by Kendra Sirak[10], Senior Staff Scientist at David Reich Lab of the prestigious Harvard Medical School, US, is camping in the temple town of Madurai since February 13 2023, to help the new lab analyse the samples collected from Konthagai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kodumanal[11]. Konthagai is the burial site of Keeladi, the urban habitation site that is believed to have existed between 800 BCE to 300 CE as per a recent report submitted by Archaeological Survey 2014 and 2016. The new date derived by the ASI pushes the Sangam Era behind by another 500 years than it was earlier thought to be.

Migration and admixture of races: Whether one or three, 50, 100 or more than 100 experts on the genetic studies, they come back to the same race hypotheses and theories. One such >100 experts summarize[12], “By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

19-06-2024

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[1] The Hindu, Carbonised paddy from excavations could shed more light on a variety of activities in Iron Age, say experts, T. K. Rohit, Published – September 08, 2020 12:16 pm IST – CHENNAI

[2] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/carbonised-paddy-from-excavations-could-shed-more-light-on-a-variety-of-activities-in-iron-age-say-experts/article32549834.ece

[3] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms – :~:text=It%20may%20be%20recalled%20that,old%2C%20dating%20to%201155%20BC.

[4] Deccan Herald, 2k yrs ago, surplus rice boosted trade in Keeladi, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST.

[5] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/2k-yrs-ago-surplus-rice-boosted-trade-in-keeladi-1163389.html

[6] Palanichamy, M. G., Mitra, B., Debnath, M., Agrawal, S., Chaudhuri, T. K., & Zhang, Y. P. (2014). Tamil merchant in ancient Mesopotamia. Plos one, 9(10), e109331.

[7] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST.

[8] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms

[9] Deccan Herald, Harvard team helps Tamil Nadu lab with ancient DNA extraction and analysis, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Published 16 February 2023, 22:51 IST; Last Updated: 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST.

[10] Kendra Sirak, Senior Staff Scientist – https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/people/kendra-sirak

[11] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/harvard-team-helps-tamil-nadu-lab-with-ancient-dna-extraction-and-analysis-1191996.html

[12] Narasimhan, V.M., Patterson, N., Moorjani, P., Rohland, N., Bernardos, R., Mallick, S., Lazaridis, I., Nakatsuka, N., Olalde, I., Lipson, M. and Kim, A.M., 2019. The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia. Science, 365(6457), p.eaat7487.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The Chayasthambas: Chaya-sthamba (shadow + pillar) is a memorial pillar bearing the image of the deceased. It implies that the person is dead, but, he / she lives there as a shadow i.e, either spirit or memory lives there as a memorable symbol. The Cayasthambhas of Andhra Pradesh are herostones and memorial stones. Karnataka and Maharashtra contain a large number of sati and hero-stones. This series fall in the early medieval period (5th, 6th century CE. onwards) and have been dated to 5th to 14th-15th centuries CE. The series from Maharashtra does not contain any inscription hence the dating has to be done on stylistic grounds. Apart from these areas, such memorial stones are found in Madhyapradesh, Bihar, Kashmir and Orissa. In Odisha, this form of the Divine Mother is often designated as Stambhesvari (Khambhesvari), or as Kandhunidevi i.e. the deity of the aboriginal Khonds[1]. Parvati is considered as lithic counterpart of Siva Liga and thus, Stambheswari or Khambheswari. That Parvati is also known as Sati, Chaya, Sakti, part of Siva (Ardha-nareswara) and so on. Thus, all these point to Dhakhsyayini episode, from which the Sati concept was evolved.

India-1947 is not the India, studied historically: India of c3500 BCE has been entirely different from that India- 2500 BCE, India – 1000 CE and India – 1947. Sind touching the boundaries of Persia and Arabia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Balochistan – on north-west and Brahmadesa, Yuan, and Indo-China on the north-east and thus, India was existing in such a vast geographical area[2]. That is why the Persian and Greek sources say that Darius and Alexander wanted to invade India. They were characteristically mentioned as “India intra-gangem” and “India extra-gangem.” Interestingly, these areas were ruled by the Rajaput warrior class rulers. Thus, Hero-stones are found in these areas. There are certain documents, as pointed out by Edward Pocoke[3], Col. Tod[4] and others that Vikramaditya was ruling parts of Arabia[5]. The similarities between the Greeks and Indians were pointed out by many scholars including William Jones[6], Richard Garb end others. As the Persians, Greeks and Arabs started intruding from c.500 BCE to 712 CE, the Indian kingdoms and dynasties started getting affected by them.  With the Islamization, these parts changed completely and with the creation of Pakistan, whatever left out Indian monuments have also been subjected to vandalism and official forceful encroachment and thus, temples have started disappearing. Under such circumstances, the study of Hero-stones and Sati stones is very difficult.

Memorial stones found in Kashmir from the Neolithic period: During the Neolithic period-II, a stone slab with its base 70cm wide was found half buried upside down in a pit at Burzhom[7]. The engraved side was made smooth with proper polishing. Unfortunately, the upper most part of the stone is partially damaged resulting into the loss of the upper part of the engraved scene. The scene depicts five things, Two men, an antelope, a dog and two double-layered circular objects with rays on outer wall like a sun. One man is standing at the rear end of the stag with a long rod-like structure, most probably a spear in the right hand. The second man, shooting an arrow in the chest of the stag is at the front. His left leg is in air crouching back. All these clearly prove that it was a hero-stone, but, now found in a damaged condition. Massive menhiris that can be still found at the site, gritty red ware wheel made Pottery, rubble structures and a few metallic objects were found belonging to this period of Megalithic culture. Thus, the megalithic burial practices continued with Neolithic burial practices and thereafter.

Pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan monuments of Kashmir: In Kashmir, there were hundreds and perhaps thousands of Memorial / Hero stones and as well as Sati Stones. The earliest examples of memorial stones recorded from Kashmir date back to circa 2nd -3rd century CE.  Thus, the reason for such practice has to be analyzed. Here, the narrative would be that of the pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan periods. The Muslim writers used to interpret in that way dividing the period. They were found in every nook and corner of the Valley, these memorial stones reflect a widespread practice based on the tenets of ‘hero worship’ as well as ‘ritual death’ like ‘Praya’ and Sati. As usual, Kashmiris haven’t documented much, the stones are simply called ‘memorial stones’. Kashmir is known as ‘Satidesh’ (Land of Sati). The mythical origins of the valley come from the story of Sati, the first wife of Shiva who immolated herself. Still, these stone memorials stand testimony to a time when women were burnt alive and then worshipped. When the Mohammedans attacked during the medieval period, the women of that area would have resorted to sati or Jowher to save their honour, just like Rajaput women.

Disappearing Hero stones of Kashmir: One of the first archaeological reports on ancient monuments of Kashmir did mention the probability that these were ‘sati-stones’. Rai Sahib Daya Ram during his survey of monuments of Kashmir in around 1915 wrote: “Another class of antiquities of this late period which are very common everywhere in Kashmir, are a kind of memorial spans which might have been sati stones. […] The face of the slab is divided into two compartments, the upper one containing a standing figure of Bhairava with this usual emblems, and the lower a female figure seated between a bird and a dog, the vehicle of the deity referred to. In some examples, the female is represented as seated by the side of her deceased husband.” Daya Ram in ‘Pre-Muhammadan Monuments of Kashmir’ ascribes the stone slabs to 14th century, the late part of Kashmir History, towards the end of Hindu rule when no big shrines were anymore constructed. Rajatarangini tells us 14th century was a turbulent time as the local powers where constantly at war with each other and Islam was introduced in Kashmir. Men were dying in wars and women were getting burnt.  This brings us to the other kind of memorial stones found in Kashmir: the ‘Hero-Stones’ Some memorial slabs kept at SPS Museum, Srinagar. During the administration of Dewan Kirpa Ram [(1826-1830)] Kashmiri Pandits resumed the ancient practice of Sati in all likelihood persuaded by the Sikhs and the Punjabi Hindus[8], because of the Mohammedan atrocities. So these details would become another “Kashmir Files”!

Statues of dead in Tukistan, Central asia: In Turkistan, the hero statues have been found erected like Hero-stones[9]. The researchers accepted that[10] “The custom of making a statue to a dead warrior is reflected in the heroic epic as well.” The statues found of bust size, elongated size etc., resemble hero-stone only, though, the researchers do not mention with such expressions. But, when they were erected to commemorate dead warriors, they come under hero-stones only. As Islam prohibits idol-worship, perhaps, they do not mention with such explicit expressions. In fact, Yaroslav Vassilkov[11] confirms that they are Indian Hero-stones only and they belonged to the Bronze Age. Therefore, a question arises why the Indians living there resorted to such practices there. During that period, whom the Indian heroes were fighting against and getting martyrdom, so that memorials could be built for them. While the controversy of Aryans migrating from Central Asia to Indus Valley and from there to South India has been there and persistently believed even today by the Dravidologists, such events have to be analyzed critically.

Hero-stones at Mizoram: The North-eastern India was facing ethnic and tribal conflicts, at the Chinese were always trying to control other people. Till the medieval – 13th century, the North-eastern India and beyond were part of the “Greater India” and under Indian influence. Thus, the Hero-stones of Mizoram[12] have been interesting to study. The Mizo raised stones over graves in memory of deceased family members[13]. In the case of a chief, the memorial stone is erected at the entrance of the village. There may be two different types of memorials among the Mizo, the stones which are erected over a grave and therefore, connected with burials and another erected at the entrance of the village which are meant only as memorials and have no connection with burials. Besides hero-stones, memorial-type stones are also found in the villages of Mizoram[14]. The Mizo megaliths serve as Memorial stones or Commemorative stones in functionality. The Mizo raised stones in memory of the deceased. The use of wood or stone, or both as memorials to the dead and to the living is also another characteristic feature of this tradition.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] B. C. Pradhan, Sakti worship in Odisha, Ph. D. Dissertation Sambalpur University, 1983, p. 39.

[2]   Now some writers denote it as “Greater India,” Akhanda Bharat etc., but the fact is that “India” of 3500 BCE is bigger than the 1947-India.

[3]  Edward Pockoke, India in Greece,

[4]  Col.Tod, The Annals and antiquities of Rajastan, Three volumes, Motilala Banrasidas, New Delhi. 

[5] Whether the Vikramadiya story is myth, mythistory, mythology etc., or not, he has been so popular and lives among the people even today through many sources. Only Vincent Smith dubbed him as myth and he was consigned accordingly.

[6]  William Jones, On the Chronology of Hindus, in The Works of sir William Jones, Vol.IV, pp,1-48, 1789.

P. J. Marshall (Ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, Cambridge university Press, UK, 1970,

[7] Dar, Mohammad Ashraf. “Earliest History Of Kashmir (Archaeological And Geological Perspective).” International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS)

Volume 3 Issue 13, December 2016.

[8] R. K. Parmu, A History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, 1819-1846, Peoples Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1969.

[9] Kubarev, G. V. “Ancient Turkic statues: Epic hero or warrior ancestor?.” Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 29.1 (2007): 136-144.

[10] Sher Ya.A. 1966, Drevnetyurkskie plemena v zerkale arkheologii. In Stepnye imperii Evrazii. St. Petersburg: Farn, pp. 92 – 165.

[11] Vassilkov, Yaroslav. “Indian” hero-stones” and the Earliest Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Bronze Age.” Journal of Indo-European Studies 39.1/2 (2011): 194.

[12] Singh, Salam Shyam. “Hero stones and other archaeological remains of Lianpui Mizoram.” Journal of History, Art and Archaeology 2.1 (2022): 53-62.

[13] Nayan, Sujeet, and Moirangthem Jackson Singh., Menhirs and Petroglyphs of Vangchhia,  Indian Journal of Archaeology 7.1 (2022): 53-84.

[14] SINGH, SS. “Archaeological Remains at Zote in Mizoram, in 50 Years after Daojali-Hading: Emerging Perspectives in the Archaeology of Northeast India,