Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (5)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (5)

The European and American struggle against race: The myth of race originated among the whites of the European countries and with them, it spread to the USA also, with “Pilgrim Progress”. Under the guise of scientific studies, such race researches were encouraged and then debunked [1] them as “Man’s most dangerous myth.” It is now generally acknowledged that the term ‘race’ entered English early in the 16^th century. This was also the time when the term was acquiring currency in other European languages, for example ‘rassa’ and ‘race’ in French, ‘razza’ in Italian, ‘raca’ in Portuguese, and ‘raza’ in Spanish. By the middle of the 16^th century, one common meaning was beginning to gain ground. The Europeans were dividing themselves based on common ancestry, common language, common faith, etc.. Race began to refer to family, lineage, and breed. In modern times also, they pursued such unscientific hypotheses and theories to prove the “white man’s burden.” Even after debunking the race, it has been resurrected through genetics in the sophisticated laboratories. The race hypotheses and theories with related factors of skin colour, skull shape-size, morphology and others are briefly reviewed in the context.

The Caucasian, Europid or Europoid race: The Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) is a racial classification of humans based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. The Caucasian race was historically regarded as a biological taxon which, depending on which of the historical race classifications was being used, usually included ancient and modern populations from all or parts of Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history, the term denoted one of three purported major races of humankind (those three being Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid). In the United States, the root term Caucasian is still in use as a synonym for white or of European, Middle Eastern, or North African ancestry and now it is used by the Indian researchers also.

Nordic race, Nordicism etc: The Europeans also started to find out which nationality was more pure than others with identifiable morphological features. Thus, the concept of Nordic race originated in 19^th-century anthropology. It was once considered a race or one of the putative sub-races into which some late-19^th to mid-20^th century anthropologists divided the Caucasian race, claiming that its ancestral homelands were Northwestern and Northern Europe, particularly to populations such as Anglo-Saxons, Germanic peoples, Balts, Baltic Finns, Northern French, and certain Celts, Slavs and Ghegs. The supposed physical traits of the Nordics included light eyes, light skin, tall stature, and dolichocephalic skull; their psychological traits were deemed to be truthfulness, equitability, a competitive spirit, naivete, reservedness, and individualism. In the early 20th century, the belief that the Nordic race constituted the superior branch of the Caucasian race gave rise to the ideology of Nordicism.

The Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior branch of the “Aryan race” constituting a master race (Herrenvolk): The belief that the Nordic phenotype is superior to all others was originally embraced as “Anglo-Saxonism” in England and the United States, “Teutonicism” in Germany, and “Frankisism” in Northern France. The notion of the superiority of the “Nordic race” and the superiority of the Northwestern European nations that were associated with this supposed race influenced the United States’ Immigration Act of 1924 (which effectively banned or severely limited the immigration of Italians, Jews, and other Southern and Eastern Europeans) and the later Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, and it was also present in other countries outside Northwestern Europe and the United States, such as Australia, Canada, and South Africa. By the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior branch of the “Aryan race” and constituted a master race (Herrenvolk). The full application of this belief system—the invasion of Poland and further conquest in the pursuit of Lebensraum, ‘living space’—was the immediate catalyst for World War II and led directly to the industrial mass murder of six million Jews and eleven million other victims in what is now known as the Holocaust. Thus, it is amply evident that the Europeans were responsible for the creation of such racial myths leading to the World Wars. Now, again the Europeans and Americans have been trying to match such ideology ith their genetic studies. How the race factors were developed are studied briefly.

The four categorizations of race continue: Natural taxonomic categories of the human species were considered by Linnaeus in 1758 for the classification of race. He differentiated Homo sapiens afar and Homo sapiens Europeans and added four geographical subdivisions of humans:

1. White Europeans,
2. red Americans,
3. yellow Asians, and
4. black Africans.

Although Linnaeus intended an objective classification, he used both biological and cultural data in his subdivision descriptions.

Blumenbach. in 1775, categorized humans into five “races,” which is similar to Linnaeus’s classifications. Coon in 1962, on the basis of phenotypic physical features, further refined classification into five races; he called the races as –

1. Caucasoid,
2. Mongoloid,
3. Australoid,
4. Negroid, and
5. Capoid.

Despite disagreement among anthropologists, this classification remains in use by many researchers, as well as lay persons.

1. Caucasoids,
2. Mongoloids,
3. Negroids, and
4. Australoids (Australian aborigines) are four major groups considered in the world.

Even today, these four categories are faithfully and strictly followed by the genetic engineers, hereditary experts and inherent scientists.

Genetic interpretation of race: The conception of “race” here proposed is based upon the following fundamental postulates:

• that the original ancestral species population was genetically relatively heterogeneous;

• that by migration away from this original ancestral group, individual families became dispersed over the earth;

• that some of the groups thus dispersed became geographically isolated from one another and remained so isolated for more or less considerable periods of time;

(4) that upon all these isolated groups several of the following factors came into play as conditions leading to evolutionary change:

(a) the genetic drift or inherent variability of the genotypic, materials composing each individual member of the group;

(b) physical change in the action of a gene associated, in a partial manner, with a particular character, that is, gene mutation.

Skin Color: Actually, it is because of colour that the Europeans started postulating the race hypothesis slowly developing into a theory. When the European explorers started visiting other countries or the people of other countries visiting their countries, they could notice the change in the skin colours of the Africans and the Asians. Later they could note the colour difference of the Chinese and Americans. While the North Americans appeared reddish, the South American were brownish. Thus, the five colours also formulated to match. Human populations obviously differ in average skin colour. Many people consider skin colour the most important indicator of “race,” and they sometimes treat others differently solely on this basis. But anthropologists, in addition to being critical of prejudice, also note that skin colour is not a good indicator of ancestry. For example, dark skin is commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa. However, natives of southern India have skin as dark or darker than that of many Africans. Yet these people are not closely related to Africans, either genetically or historically. The amount of melanin in the skin seems to be related to the climate in which a person lives. Next to the skin colour, the head played a crucial role in identifying a race.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

21-06-2024

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[1] Montagu, MF Ashley. Man’s most dangerous myth: The fallacy of race. Columbia University Press, 1945.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Paddy known in 2020 and husk thereafter in the excavations: The details given by the leading dailies (The Hindu, Times of India, Deccan Herald) continue as follows: When the MKU teams informed that the excess production of rice prompted the settlers to set sail in the seas to far-away land that are chronicled in several literature, the ASI report, which is yet to be made public, such reports were in circulation in the media. Therefore, it is evident that the excavators or some persons were leaking out findings partly, partially or otherwise for sensation or publicity. While carbonised paddy was found on the stratified surface at Agaram, it was found in an offering pot at Sivagalai[1]. These are to be sent to labs for carbon dating and identification of the grains – whether they are rice or millet or any other type of grain, and whether they were local grains or imported grains, as this will throw more light upon the life of the people during that period[2]. It may be recalled that it was the carbon dating done on a carbonised paddy grain in Sivagalai, which helped determine the age of the Porunai River civilization to 3200 years old, dating to 1155 BC[3].

Husk or hull of paddy of rice or millet – to be decided: However, it can be noted that the word paddy is used and it is related to rice only. Detailed analyses of plants and soil from Keeladi, a Sangam-era archaeological site near Madurai in Tamil Nadu, have shown that surplus production of rice in the area might have paved the way for the increase in trade 2,000 years ago, even as artefacts unearthed show that an industrialized urban civilization existed on the banks of River Vaigai[4]. However, certain researchers have already concluded this point and started publishing their papers also. The above finding by the French Institute of Pondicherry will be part of the final report of the first two phases of excavation at Keeladi, 12 km southeast of Madurai, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2014 and 2015[5]. As many as 5,800 artefacts were unearthed during the first two phases, but the ASI withdrew from the excavations after it announced that there was no “significant finding” in the third phase.

The press reporting was intriguing: The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) took over in 2017 and has conducted five phases of excavation so far. It is likely to launch the ninth round next year. Sources in the know told (Deccan Herald) that analyses conducted by a leading palaeontologist for the past few months have concluded that there was surplus rice production in and around Keeladi. “Artefacts found from Keeladi have indicated that trade ties flourished between inhabitants of Keeladi and other countries in the form of coins and other items. And the results of the analyses serve as further proof of the trade ties, and excess rice production played a crucial role,” the source added. Archaeologists who worked in Keeladi at different times told DH that overwhelming evidence of industries based on beads and terracotta having existed there were unearthed in the past eight years. “Surplus rice production might have flourished those industries as the inhabitants set out in the sea to unfurl their flag in far-away nations,” another source said. Here, that, “leading palaeontologist” has not been named and the “source” not revealed, yet, all these are appearing in the public domain.

Genetics liking Tamil merchants with Mesopotamia: Few researchers have already started publishing papers about the existence of Tamil merchants at Mesopotamia based on genetic interpretation[6]. They conclude, “Taken together, our mtDNA analysis shows that mtDNAs of these ancient Mesopotamians probably originated from Indian merchants. This, thus rules out the hypothesis that these samples comprise an ancient component (Upper Paleolithic) of macrohaplo group M involved in the founding of the Mesopotamian civilization. Therefore, the present study sheds new insights on the understanding of the origins of ancient Mesopotamian macrohaplogroup M lineages and the influence of Indian-Tamil merchants to Mesopotamian gene pool during trans-oceanic trade.” Had the “Dravidians” included Telugu, Kannada, Malayala and other languages, then, such merchants must have also existed there.  Perhaps, soon such claims be added.

The date of the rice husk awaited: The findings are significant as carbon dating of artefacts found in the fourth phase date back to 600 BCE, pushing the Sangam Era behind by three centuries than it was thought and making it contemporaneous with the Gangetic Plains Civilisation of north India. Rice husks found in burial urns at Konthagai, the burial site of Keeladi, over the three phases have also been sent for DNA analysis[7]. It may be noted that rice husks found in an urn in Sivagalai, another excavation site, dated back to 3,200 years[8] or 1155 BCE. Refusing to share any details, ASI’s Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna told DH in December 2022, that the report on the first two phases of the Keeladi excavation was in the final stages and is likely to be completed in a couple of months. “We have finished 90% of the work, but the report compilation is taking time. The diagrams are ready, and they have been incorporated into the report. We are exercising utmost caution and not rushing because of the sensitivities attached to the issue. One thing I can assure you is the report will be comprehensive,” Ramakrishna said.

The gap between IVC and Sangam to be narrowed down: The second source quoted said 23 samples have been sent for carbon dating analysis to Beta Analytical Lab in Florida, US and other institutes in the country and added that results of almost all of them have arrived except for a few. Nearly 18,000 artefacts, including over 2,200 from the latest phase, have been unearthed from Keeladi, bearing testimony to the rich urban life ancient Tamils had lived, thereby providing further archaeological evidence to the Sangam Literature. The archaeological findings have created a buzz with researchers and archaeologists in Tamil Nadu, calling them significant as they “narrow down” the gap between the Tamil urban settlements and the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC). However, they say “more evidence” should be forthcoming, while experts outside Tamil Nadu say there is no link between Keeladi and IVC. The latest excavation phase has led to the discovery of several artefacts, including dice made of ivory, an ivory gamesman, an iron knife, an antimony rod, copper pendants, ring wells, structures, rectangular-shaped ivory dice, beads, and terracotta figurines. The dating of all recovered objects have not been revealed.

Harvard Medical School, US experts at Madurai February 2023: Tamil Nadu’s first Ancient DNA Lab at the Madurai Kamaraj University has opened its doors for a team from the world-renowned David Reich Lab to assist it in extracting DNA from 30 human samples collected from burial urns unearthed during excavations with “minimal damage” as part of the efforts to provide scientific evidence to archaeological findings[9]. The team led by Kendra Sirak[10], Senior Staff Scientist at David Reich Lab of the prestigious Harvard Medical School, US, is camping in the temple town of Madurai since February 13 2023, to help the new lab analyse the samples collected from Konthagai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kodumanal[11]. Konthagai is the burial site of Keeladi, the urban habitation site that is believed to have existed between 800 BCE to 300 CE as per a recent report submitted by Archaeological Survey 2014 and 2016. The new date derived by the ASI pushes the Sangam Era behind by another 500 years than it was earlier thought to be.

Migration and admixture of races: Whether one or three, 50, 100 or more than 100 experts on the genetic studies, they come back to the same race hypotheses and theories. One such >100 experts summarize[12], “By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

19-06-2024

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[1] The Hindu, Carbonised paddy from excavations could shed more light on a variety of activities in Iron Age, say experts, T. K. Rohit, Published – September 08, 2020 12:16 pm IST – CHENNAI

[2] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/carbonised-paddy-from-excavations-could-shed-more-light-on-a-variety-of-activities-in-iron-age-say-experts/article32549834.ece

[3] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms – :~:text=It%20may%20be%20recalled%20that,old%2C%20dating%20to%201155%20BC.

[4] Deccan Herald, 2k yrs ago, surplus rice boosted trade in Keeladi, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST.

[5] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/2k-yrs-ago-surplus-rice-boosted-trade-in-keeladi-1163389.html

[6] Palanichamy, M. G., Mitra, B., Debnath, M., Agrawal, S., Chaudhuri, T. K., & Zhang, Y. P. (2014). Tamil merchant in ancient Mesopotamia. Plos one, 9(10), e109331.

[7] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST.

[8] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms

[9] Deccan Herald, Harvard team helps Tamil Nadu lab with ancient DNA extraction and analysis, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Published 16 February 2023, 22:51 IST; Last Updated: 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST.

[10] Kendra Sirak, Senior Staff Scientist – https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/people/kendra-sirak

[11] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/harvard-team-helps-tamil-nadu-lab-with-ancient-dna-extraction-and-analysis-1191996.html

[12] Narasimhan, V.M., Patterson, N., Moorjani, P., Rohland, N., Bernardos, R., Mallick, S., Lazaridis, I., Nakatsuka, N., Olalde, I., Lipson, M. and Kim, A.M., 2019. The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia. Science, 365(6457), p.eaat7487.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (2)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (2)

Project Title: Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach: The MKU-RUSA supported research project entitled “Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach”, to work in a collaborative venture between the Dept. of Archaeology, Govt. of Tamil Nadu and School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University[1]. As most of the archaeological sites have been near to Madurai, MKU might have chosen for the research and setting up the laboratory. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), launched in 2013 aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational institutions. The central funding (in the ratio of 60:40 for general category States, 90:10 for special category states and 100% for union territories) would be norm-based and outcome dependent. The funding would flow from the central ministry through the state governments/union territories to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the identified institutions. The funding to states would be made on the basis of a critical appraisal of State Higher Education Plans, which would describe each state’s strategy to address issues of equity, access and excellence in higher education. Yet, the states blaming the Centre for the sanctioning and allocation of funds is noted very often.

Department of Genetics Madurai Kamaraj University:  Department of Genetics was established in 1990. The former heads of the Department were –

1. Prof. T. J. Panidan,
2. Prof. S. Mathavan and
3. Prof. P. Gunasekaran.

Cancer Genetics and Microbial Genetics are the broad research areas of the Department, at present. Complex regulations in cancer cells and microbes have been investigated with molecular genetics, genomics and proteomice since 1990, 45 major research projects were completed by the former and current faculty members of the Genetic Department and 55 Ph.D students were awarded from the Department. At present, there are 7 major projects being investigated in the Department with the support of DBT, DST, ICMR, and UGC. Cancer Genetics Laboratory in the Department of Genetics is focusing on understanding the altered signalling pathways and their regulation In gastric, liver and breast §§J1§#F§ to recognize therapeutically vulnerable targets. So, now it is evident that the department has turned towards genetic studies in a different manner focused on the people of the ancient Tamilgam.

MKU ancient DNA research oriented to TN Archaeology: Dr. Kumaresan is involved in investigating ancient genomics of the archaeological human, animal, plant, and bacterial remains from the archaeological excavations of  Dept.  of  Archaeology, Government of  TamilNadu,  India[2]. The Ancient  DNA  Program  of  MKU  is  progressing in  the following  aspects: 

1. Ancient  Human  DNA  Analysis, 
2. Animal  DNA  Analysis, 
3. Plant  DNA Analysis,
4. Sedimental DNA analysis,
5. Microbial DNA Analysis,
6. Organic Molecular Analysis,
7. Proteomics,  etc.

The  human  and animal skeletal and  floral  remains  from  Keeladi,  Kondagai, Adichanallur,  Sivagalai,  Kodumanal  and  Mayiladumparai are  investigated  in  genomic  contexts with the contemporary modern and ancient genomes across the globe to understand the ancient biology  as  well  as  to  provide  biological  evidence  to  the scientific  missions  of  the Archaeology Department of Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Here, how the genetic experts would deal with Dravidian, non-Dravidian or Aryan categories has to be noted carefully. It has already been pointed out that Pitchappan has already talked about the Dravidian category.

Ancient DNA Lab was inaugurated in November 2022: The lab, which was inaugurated in November 2022, has begun preliminary work on conducting ancient DNA analysis on human, animal, and plant samples collected by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) and ASI[3]. According to a press statement from the university, the main objective of the Ancient DNA lab was to generate and analyze DNA data from the archaeological excavations of Tamil Nadu. The lab had been established following the models at the University of Chicago and Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow[4]. Professor G Kumaresan, Head, Department of Genetics, School of Biological Sciences, MKU, “We have begun the dry run. The samples are expectedly contaminated because they remained buried deep for centuries together. We are now being assisted by the Harvard team in extracting DNA from the human samples with minimal damage,” told to DH. “The team is helping us with the techniques they have successfully followed so far,” Kumaresan added. Kendra Sirak, of David Reich Lab of the prestigious Harvard Medical School, US who has so far analyzed 500 DNA samples, is an expert in extracting DNA without disturbing the skull much and lessons from her will only help those at the MKU lab learn the tricks of the trade.

DNA tests to corroborate people with Sangam period: DNA is extracted mainly from teeth and petrous bones of the human samples which is used as the primary input. “DNA is generally extracted from Calculus bone and from the root of the teeth. The extracted portion is then processed and computationally analysed. We will then compare the data of ancient DNA with global data to understand migration (of people) and the linkages with global populations,” Kumaresan added. Sirak said her team was excited to collaborate with MKU team to study DNA from people who lived in Tamil Nadu long ago. “We will combine our expertise in hopes to generate authentic ancient DNA sequences that will help us to learn more about this very important part of India,” she told DH. The results of the DNA analysis generated by the MKU lab will be cross-checked by the Harvard team to ensure that the findings are right and questions are not raised over them since the samples are contaminated with bacterial DNA. The results will then be compared with thousands of ancient and modern human genomes across the globe to explain in detail the ancient human migration and will be corroborated with Sangam Literature wherever possible. Thus, it is evident that goal has been set before the research to start, samples to come from the sites, they are to be tested in the newly set up laboratory etc.

Lab could test all biological samples: Apart from ancient DNA, the MKU team is also exploring the proteins from skeletal remains and organic molecules from the potsherds of the offering pots. Some of the molecules retrieved so far includes Floxuridine (rice), Orotic Acid (milk), Myristic Acid (myristica), Ricinoleic Acid (castor) and cholesterol (animal fats). The MKU lab has already sequenced about 1500 millions of DNA fragments from 20 samples of humans, animals, and plants. The DNA collected from the samples will help understand the agricultural and trade practices, while the organic molecular analysis would reveal the agricultural, cultural, and social practices in Tamil Nadu during 500 BCE – 2500 BCE. The retrieval of rice is significant as pollen analyses of samples from the first phases of excavations in Keeladi found that excess production of rice contributed to the growth of the urban city while fertile land played “an active role” for the evolution of the habitation. The excess production of rice prompted the settlers to set sail in the seas to far-away lands that are chronicled in several literatures, the ASI report, which is yet to be made public, says. The non-publication of excavation reports has been a drawback not only for the excavators, but also for the researchers, as they could not quote the findings for their reference. Therefore, the excavating groups, concerned departments and authorities should take the initiative to publish the reports within a reasonable time.

What Romila Thapar says about genetic studies[5]: Romila Thapar has pointed out the following in the context of genetic studies:

• It is assumed that genetic analyses can provide some evidence of human population origins and social history in India. But so far, the results have been contradictory, and historians find it difficult to use them with any certitude.
• Race as a category is unknown to traditional Indian classifications. It was imported from Britain and was used mainly by Europeans writing on Indian society, although subsequently it came to be used by Indians as well.
• Attempts have been made recently to determine the identity of the so-called “Aryans” as components of the Indian population by using DNA analysis. This is largely to ascertain whether they were indigenous to India or were foreign arrivals.
• Similar attempts have been made to trace the origins of caste groups on the basis of varna identities and record their distribution. The results so far have been contradictory and, therefore, not of much help to social historians.
• There are problems in the defining of categories and the techniques of analysis.
• Aryan is a linguistic and cultural category and not a biological one.
• Caste groups have no well-defined and invariable boundaries despite marriage codes. Various other categories have been assimilated into particular castes as part of the evolution of social history on the subcontinent.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

18-06-2024

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[1] Antiquity of peopling of Deccan – An ancient DNA approach with grant nurnber MKU-RUSA/2020/48.

[2] Ancient Genomics of the Archaeological remains of Tamil Nadu – https://mkuniversity.ac.in/new/school/sbs/kumaresan.php

[3] The Hindu, Ancient DNA and BSL 3 laboratories inaugurated in Madurai Kamaraj University, THE HINDU BUREAU, Published – November 17, 2022 10:42 pm IST – MADURAI; Updated – November 18, 2022 11:28 am IST.

[4] https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/ancient-dna-and-bsl-3-laboratories-inaugurated-in-madurai-kamaraj-university/article66150429.ece – :~:text=According%20to%20a%20press%20statement,Sahni%20Institute%20of%20Palaeosciences%2C%20Lucknow.

[5] Thapar, Romila. “Can genetics help us understand Indian social history?.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6.11 (2014): a008599.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (2)

The place where erected: Similarly, the place where the memorial stones were erected has also been a part of research studies.

1. Generally, where the person attained martyrdom, that spot was chosen for erecting the hero-stone.
2. The scholarly tradition[1]  maintains that a hero-stone was raised on the spot where the hero fell or where his remains were buried, or alternatively in his native village or in the place where his relatives lived.
3. However, they we either disturbed or shifted to other convenient places.
4. The current position of the materials, however, hardly corresponds to the original one. Many have been relocated inside museums or temple premises, either as freestanding elements or as structural components; but even when found at the crossroads of hamlets, under trees or next to water reserves, one cannot ignore that some transformative process must have intervened over the centuries and reshaped the landscape (e.g. due to the construction of a new road, or to cropland expansion).
5. Archaeological excavations never occurred systematically in the past, so that at present, threatened by increasing urbanization, the veracity of both primary and secondary sources on this issue is de facto unascertainable.
6. Formation of new states / countries and vandalism also responsible for the disturbance or even destruction of hero-stones.

These erected stones at the villages and remote areas might have become distant or deserted places, due to urbanization etc., and thus, slowly neglected and forgotten. The enthusiastic explorers and others, very often claim that they “discovered” the hero-stones and so on!

Stone usage in the Megalith burials and tribals: Man and stone-usage cannot be separated. Modernism and urbanization might have changed the life-style, but, its usage continues, as could be noted, at least in the kitchens. In India, every group of people follow certain “samskaras”  traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies where, stones play an important role. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition in India, as the practice of erecting megaliths in honour of the dead is still found among the tribals living in northeastern, eastern, central and south India like the Khasis and the Garos and the Syntengs of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and the Karbis of Assam, the Nagas of Manipur and Nagaland, the Hos and the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Gonds and the Morias of Chattisgarh, the Kurumbas of Kerala, the Bondos and the Gadabas of Orissa and the Savaras of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Thus, its prevalence in all states can be noted.

Hero-tones in South India: The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu is more than 2400 years old that is 4^th century BCE. According to the historian Upinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones is found in the Indian state of Karnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest in Karnataka is dated to the 5^th century CE. The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (400 BCE) though a vast majority were erected between the 4^th century BCE to 13^th century CE. During this period, the dynasties were fighting with each other, and later I the medieval period resisting the Arab / Mohammedan intrusion into South India. Thus, the Hero-stones inculcated the memory of fallen heroes for their sacrifices to protect their boundaries, properties and power.

Sati – Widow burning was prevalent among all the ancient civilizations:  It has been argued by them that sati, now popularly known and understood as the practice of widow-burning did not originate from the ancient Indians, as it is commonly believed and propagated, but had roots in the ancient Egypt, Greek, and other European civilizations. It was among the Gauls, the Goths, the Norwegians, the Celts, the Slavs and the Tharcians. In Egypt, the processions of a king, Pharaoh were buried along with him or a pyramid built over his body, while in Greece women entered into the pyres of their dead husbands. Similar pyre sacrifices were prevalent among almost all ethnic groups of Europe. In China, if a widow killed herself in order to follow her dead husband to heaven, her corpse was taken out in a great procession[2]. Col. James Tod mentions that Female immolation originated with the Sun-worshipping Saivas and was common to all those nations who adored this as the most splendid object of the visible creation[3]. Here, also, the terms and expressions used have to be understood properly:

1. Sati – Voluntary self-immolation of wife. Getting into a pyre voluntarily, “Udankattai-erudhal” as mentioned in Tamil.
2. Sati – Widow burning – Sometimes, interpreted as forced (as interpreted from Mohammedan and colonial writers).
3. Jauhar, sometimes spelt Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by females, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by Turko-Persian Islamic invaders, when facing certain defeat during a war.

Satikal prominent in and around Rajasthan area: Sati and hero-stones are important and studied in the context. Rajasthan, and nearby areas are prominent with Satikal, because of the Mohammedan atrocities, as they are well-known, they are not discussed. The hero-stones from Central India have emerged from a tribal context and concern tribal chiefs. They are invaluable in understanding attitudes to death and belief patterns of tribes. The hero-stones from Western India reflect the physical and social ecology of the area in their pictographic context. Those that depict cattle raids in their lowest panel are understood as indicators of a dominant pastoral economy of the past. These hero-stones are found only in a specific area of the semi-arid tract of Western India. The hero and sati stones are largely found in Western, Central and Southern India. From Rajasthan We basically two types of hero-stones found. They are Paliyas (single panelled stones) and the Govardhan pillars that have a sculpted top. Sati practice is found in the Tamilndu also as recorded in the literature and inscriptions[4].

Why there were more hero-stones in Karnataka?: The relation between death and memorial stones and glorifying death and other concepts are inter-related and highly spiritual also. S. Settar pointed out[5] how the Jains identified eight types of death grouped under three categories –

1. Bala-marana – childish or foolish death
2. Pandita marana – wise death and
3. Pandita-pantita marana – the wisest of wise deaths

Then there are other types of marana –

• Sanyasana-marana – death through renunciation
• Sallekhana-marana – death through fasting
• Ardhana-marana – death through worship
• Pancapada-marana – death through prayer
• Pantita-marana – death through knowledge or wisdom
• Samadhi-marana – death through mediation etc.,

The Jains used to debate with the Buddhists and Hindus setting “death” as a precondition for the defeated. The Karnaka inscriptions show how the defeated were crushed in oil-mills. However, to glorify them, hero-stones might have been erected for them. Thus, the Jaina literature has elaborately dealt with death and also the Jains erecting monuments for the dead. As the Jains were dominant in Karanaka during the medieval period, the hero-stones were also found maximum there.

The Govardhan pillars: The Govardhan pillars are memorials for those who died in a cattle raid, but battle scene are also depicted at times. Sri  Krishna lifted the Govardhan hill and saved people – thus, lifting the Govrdhan hill is considered as a Herculean task and thus, the name “Govardhan pillar”! A sati would normally be shown by depiction of a couple facing each other. Chronologically, these stones would fall within the 6th to 7th  and 13th-14th century CE periods. The Saurashtra series is of a relatively recent period, belonging to the last three to four hundred years (16^th-17^th centuries). Here the most frequent occurrence is of Paliyas. The Paliyas are normally linked to cattle raids, skirmishes and village disputes. This is similar to the cattle seizing, cattle raiding and cattle recovering practices of the ancient Tamil Sangam people[6]. South India and Maharashtra can be easily termed as the heartland of hero-stones. The hero-stones from Tamil Nadu fall roughly within the 6^th to the 12^th century CE.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Vanamamalai, N. 1975. Herostone Worship in Ancient South India, In Social Scientist, 3, 10, pp. 40-46.

[2]  C. H. Tawney, Kathasaritsaaara, Vol.I, Terminal Essay on Suttee by Pensei, Appendix – I, pp.255-272.  He pointed out that such practice was there among all the ancient civilizations.

[3]  Col. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan , Motilal  Bararasidas, New Delhi, Vol.II, 1971, p.737.

[4] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Sati In Ancient Tamil Literature , A paper presented at 11th session of South Indian History Congress held at Calicut from February 1st -3rd , 1991.

https://archive.org/details/SatiInAncientTamilLiteratureK.V.RamakrishnaRao

[5] Shadakshari Settar, Inviting death – Indian attitude towards the ritual death, Brill, Vol.28, 1989.

[6] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Cattle Raiding In Sangam Age, the paper was presented at the 12th session of South Indian History Congress held at Karnatak University, Dharwad from November 9-11, 1991  https://archive.org/details/CattleRaidingInSangamAgeK.V.RamakrishnaRao

When I presented this paper, there was a discussion in which S. Settar asked many questions about Hero-stones of Tamilagam etc.