The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (4)

Sind / Sindh had been part of India / Bhart for centuries, till Arabs invaded and tried to Islamize……

The warriors of Sindh were resisting them with their valour……

However, they could not match with the cunningness of their enemies, when they were following the code of conduct of war etc…..

In 712, the invasion started, within 300 – 400 years, Sindh was Islamized……

and slowly, all the monuments, temples, sculptures etc., started disappearing, as the iconoclasts were destroying them regularly……

now the condition of Hro-stones are like this…….

Hero-stones in Sind: Lower Sindh in southern Pakistan is dotted with many ancient cemeteries boasting the tombs of fallen heroes, and stones erected in memory of their heroism and chivalry (Hero stones). Most of the tombstones bear weaponry depictions symbolizing death in the line of action or at least participation in battle. They are found at Oongar in the district of Thatta, province of Sindh and , a Jats burial site, is located fifty kilometres from the city of Hyderabad, close to the Buddhist stupa of Sudheran in the district of Tando Muhammad Khan, also in Sindh[1]. One finds inscriptional slabs lying all over the site at the cemetery of the Jats but it is difficult to find any inscriptions at all at the Oongar necropolis since all of the chaukhandis have disintegrated and not a single tombstone is in its original condition[2]. In other words, they were destroyed and only parts are available there now. Hero-stones and sati stones found in the Sind province of present Pakistan has been pointed out by many and also noted that they are disappearing[3]. Central Asian and Bactrian areas exhibit broken sculptures of many panels and they are identified and interpreted differently. As the Indian kings / people were massacred there, it is mentioned as Hindu-kush = Hindus blood i.e,  the Hindus were  completely routed and eliminated there, and hence, memorial stones must have been erected. Till “Hindu-kush” occurred incidence at that area, they were there struggling with invading groups. Thus, only left out monuments have been recorded by Auriel Stein during his exploration. After Talibanization, even sculptures in the museums were destroyed and therefore, the fate of the sculptures and paintings found at the sites cannot be imagined.

Memorial stones in Cambodia / Siam / Thailand: In the Siamese culture, schools pointed out about the bloody sacrifice to the Earth Goddess offered at the Door of the Underworld, an ancient tree, a termite mound, a cave, a ring of stones[4]. At the time of the Buddhist ordination ceremony and its site, the Uposatha hall was surrounded by a ring of stones. Michael Wright noted that, “There is no evidence that these stones were developed from anything in India or Lanka, whereas scholars have proposed an affinity with prehistoric circles of rough-hewn stones found in the Northeast.” However, as the South Indian merchant guilds were having close contacts with these areas, there were possibilities that some sailors, merchants and other crew members might have died there and they might have erected memorial stones for them. Stone circles are considered as memorial stones, as noted above. Here, in the Siamese tradition, as there had been mixture of several peoples, the changes noted would be appreciable. Whether such circle stones were used for good or bad purposes – is also difficult to ascertain now. In any case, they were associated with sacrifice / death only.

Interpreting death, last rites and memorial stones in the context of race, language etc., by the colonial and other ideologists: Indians must have had their territory touching the other dominant civilizations like Sumerian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek and Chinese. Thus, their influence on the other cultures has been appreciable. That is why most of the people of the ancient civilizations wanted to come to India.  Indologists were pointing out such similarities and facts during last 150-300 years, but, suddenly changed their attitude. Thus, they changed their theory of the origin of race from the Ganges valley to other places[5]. The historiography was also changed accordingly. The glorification of Indian civilization turned to criticizing even disparaging. This attitude could be noted from the works of William Jones also. With the history writing of Vincent Smith, the Indian history was reduced to 2000 years starting with the Alexander’s invasion / Asokan script. About philosophy, initially, the world scholars accepted that India was the origin of philosophy, thus, every book of philosophy started with Indian philosophy. Thus, the fight started between India and Greece and Indian history has been made to start after Alexander’s invasion, the “sheet anchor of” Indian history. Then, “Aryan-Dravidian” race theory was introduced to dive, but the underlying concepts (rites conducted from birth to death) match with each other. However, the comprehensive and holistic study of Hero-stones gives a different picture. Again, one could note the commonality, in spite of the fact that such practices were carried on far and wide and even chronologically varied from Bronze Age to Modern Age.

Conclusion: Only few examples have been given for each area and state for illustrative purposes. An exhaustive study can also be made incorporating all details after conducting field study and reading local literature. Thus, with limited study and the above discussion, the following points are noted as conclusion:

• The belief in soul, transmigration of soul, karma, life after death, rebirth, cycle of birth and death, etc., have been the basis for the creation of the memorial stone.
• Even during the Bronze Age period, Indian Hero-stones were found in the Central Asia, but, portions were destroyed.
• There is difficult in connecting protohistory with historic narratives in the Indian context, as historians have such thumb rule.
• Logically, scientifically and technologically, such restriction appears to be artificial, inconsistent and redundant considering many other archaeological, material and scientific evidences.
• After the Mahabharat War around 3102 BCE, the participant armies with warriors dispersed and started moving to their destination[6]. However, as some could not reach, they settled down on the way and they became new dynasties and people groups. However, many commonalities could be noted among these people groups[7].  Jains – essences, gymnosophists (people wearing no dress or white dress); Rajaputs – Scythians, etc[8].
• The Hero-stones were found in the areas of Central Asia, Gandhara, Sind and other provinces on the west and Burma, Siam, Kedah etc., on the East.
• That Indic / Hindu / Vedic / Sanatana believing people were living in many parts of the world, at a particular time can also be understood and known from the prevalent of memorial stones and related philosophy.
• Thus, the memorial stone erection had been an Indian practice found from the Bronze Age to 18^th century.
• The dichotomy of dividing Indians based on race, language etc., is also cleared considering the prevalence of memorial stones in different places as pointed out, as “karma” continues!

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Memorial Stones of Sindh, Pakistan: Typology and Iconography.” Puralokbarta 1 (2015): 285-298.

[2] . According to the notables of Oongar, village people have purportedly removed many of the decorative slabs either to sell in the lucrative markets in such items or simply in order to decorate their drawing rooms with these valuable pieces of art. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” P.54

[3] Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali. “Vanishing Visual Heritage: Sati and Hero-stones in Nagarparkar, Sindh.” Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art 27 (2010): 232-238.

[4] Wright, Michael. “Sacrifice and the underworld: death and fertility in Siamese myth and ritual.” Journal of the Siam Society 78.part 1 (1990).

[5] Léon Poliakov. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York, 1974.

As the European Indologists were using the expression “Aryan,” perhaps, even the Sanskrit scholar like B.G. Tilak was misled and tried to locate the Aryan origin to “Arctic region.”

[6]  Even the Greeks were mentioned as “degraded khastriyas,” by old Indologists, but, such details were suppressed later in 20^th century itself.

[7] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[8]  These are discussed by Richrd Garbe, Col. Tod and others linking Christianity with India, lost tribes etc.

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (3)

The Chayasthambas: Chaya-sthamba (shadow + pillar) is a memorial pillar bearing the image of the deceased. It implies that the person is dead, but, he / she lives there as a shadow i.e, either spirit or memory lives there as a memorable symbol. The Cayasthambhas of Andhra Pradesh are herostones and memorial stones. Karnataka and Maharashtra contain a large number of sati and hero-stones. This series fall in the early medieval period (5th, 6th century CE. onwards) and have been dated to 5th to 14th-15th centuries CE. The series from Maharashtra does not contain any inscription hence the dating has to be done on stylistic grounds. Apart from these areas, such memorial stones are found in Madhyapradesh, Bihar, Kashmir and Orissa. In Odisha, this form of the Divine Mother is often designated as Stambhesvari (Khambhesvari), or as Kandhunidevi i.e. the deity of the aboriginal Khonds[1]. Parvati is considered as lithic counterpart of Siva Liga and thus, Stambheswari or Khambheswari. That Parvati is also known as Sati, Chaya, Sakti, part of Siva (Ardha-nareswara) and so on. Thus, all these point to Dhakhsyayini episode, from which the Sati concept was evolved.

India-1947 is not the India, studied historically: India of c3500 BCE has been entirely different from that India- 2500 BCE, India – 1000 CE and India – 1947. Sind touching the boundaries of Persia and Arabia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Balochistan – on north-west and Brahmadesa, Yuan, and Indo-China on the north-east and thus, India was existing in such a vast geographical area[2]. That is why the Persian and Greek sources say that Darius and Alexander wanted to invade India. They were characteristically mentioned as “India intra-gangem” and “India extra-gangem.” Interestingly, these areas were ruled by the Rajaput warrior class rulers. Thus, Hero-stones are found in these areas. There are certain documents, as pointed out by Edward Pocoke[3], Col. Tod[4] and others that Vikramaditya was ruling parts of Arabia[5]. The similarities between the Greeks and Indians were pointed out by many scholars including William Jones[6], Richard Garb end others. As the Persians, Greeks and Arabs started intruding from c.500 BCE to 712 CE, the Indian kingdoms and dynasties started getting affected by them.  With the Islamization, these parts changed completely and with the creation of Pakistan, whatever left out Indian monuments have also been subjected to vandalism and official forceful encroachment and thus, temples have started disappearing. Under such circumstances, the study of Hero-stones and Sati stones is very difficult.

Memorial stones found in Kashmir from the Neolithic period: During the Neolithic period-II, a stone slab with its base 70cm wide was found half buried upside down in a pit at Burzhom[7]. The engraved side was made smooth with proper polishing. Unfortunately, the upper most part of the stone is partially damaged resulting into the loss of the upper part of the engraved scene. The scene depicts five things, Two men, an antelope, a dog and two double-layered circular objects with rays on outer wall like a sun. One man is standing at the rear end of the stag with a long rod-like structure, most probably a spear in the right hand. The second man, shooting an arrow in the chest of the stag is at the front. His left leg is in air crouching back. All these clearly prove that it was a hero-stone, but, now found in a damaged condition. Massive menhiris that can be still found at the site, gritty red ware wheel made Pottery, rubble structures and a few metallic objects were found belonging to this period of Megalithic culture. Thus, the megalithic burial practices continued with Neolithic burial practices and thereafter.

Pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan monuments of Kashmir: In Kashmir, there were hundreds and perhaps thousands of Memorial / Hero stones and as well as Sati Stones. The earliest examples of memorial stones recorded from Kashmir date back to circa 2nd -3rd century CE.  Thus, the reason for such practice has to be analyzed. Here, the narrative would be that of the pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan periods. The Muslim writers used to interpret in that way dividing the period. They were found in every nook and corner of the Valley, these memorial stones reflect a widespread practice based on the tenets of ‘hero worship’ as well as ‘ritual death’ like ‘Praya’ and Sati. As usual, Kashmiris haven’t documented much, the stones are simply called ‘memorial stones’. Kashmir is known as ‘Satidesh’ (Land of Sati). The mythical origins of the valley come from the story of Sati, the first wife of Shiva who immolated herself. Still, these stone memorials stand testimony to a time when women were burnt alive and then worshipped. When the Mohammedans attacked during the medieval period, the women of that area would have resorted to sati or Jowher to save their honour, just like Rajaput women.

Disappearing Hero stones of Kashmir: One of the first archaeological reports on ancient monuments of Kashmir did mention the probability that these were ‘sati-stones’. Rai Sahib Daya Ram during his survey of monuments of Kashmir in around 1915 wrote: “Another class of antiquities of this late period which are very common everywhere in Kashmir, are a kind of memorial spans which might have been sati stones. […] The face of the slab is divided into two compartments, the upper one containing a standing figure of Bhairava with this usual emblems, and the lower a female figure seated between a bird and a dog, the vehicle of the deity referred to. In some examples, the female is represented as seated by the side of her deceased husband.” Daya Ram in ‘Pre-Muhammadan Monuments of Kashmir’ ascribes the stone slabs to 14th century, the late part of Kashmir History, towards the end of Hindu rule when no big shrines were anymore constructed. Rajatarangini tells us 14th century was a turbulent time as the local powers where constantly at war with each other and Islam was introduced in Kashmir. Men were dying in wars and women were getting burnt.  This brings us to the other kind of memorial stones found in Kashmir: the ‘Hero-Stones’ Some memorial slabs kept at SPS Museum, Srinagar. During the administration of Dewan Kirpa Ram [(1826-1830)] Kashmiri Pandits resumed the ancient practice of Sati in all likelihood persuaded by the Sikhs and the Punjabi Hindus[8], because of the Mohammedan atrocities. So these details would become another “Kashmir Files”!

Statues of dead in Tukistan, Central asia: In Turkistan, the hero statues have been found erected like Hero-stones[9]. The researchers accepted that[10] “The custom of making a statue to a dead warrior is reflected in the heroic epic as well.” The statues found of bust size, elongated size etc., resemble hero-stone only, though, the researchers do not mention with such expressions. But, when they were erected to commemorate dead warriors, they come under hero-stones only. As Islam prohibits idol-worship, perhaps, they do not mention with such explicit expressions. In fact, Yaroslav Vassilkov[11] confirms that they are Indian Hero-stones only and they belonged to the Bronze Age. Therefore, a question arises why the Indians living there resorted to such practices there. During that period, whom the Indian heroes were fighting against and getting martyrdom, so that memorials could be built for them. While the controversy of Aryans migrating from Central Asia to Indus Valley and from there to South India has been there and persistently believed even today by the Dravidologists, such events have to be analyzed critically.

Hero-stones at Mizoram: The North-eastern India was facing ethnic and tribal conflicts, at the Chinese were always trying to control other people. Till the medieval – 13th century, the North-eastern India and beyond were part of the “Greater India” and under Indian influence. Thus, the Hero-stones of Mizoram[12] have been interesting to study. The Mizo raised stones over graves in memory of deceased family members[13]. In the case of a chief, the memorial stone is erected at the entrance of the village. There may be two different types of memorials among the Mizo, the stones which are erected over a grave and therefore, connected with burials and another erected at the entrance of the village which are meant only as memorials and have no connection with burials. Besides hero-stones, memorial-type stones are also found in the villages of Mizoram[14]. The Mizo megaliths serve as Memorial stones or Commemorative stones in functionality. The Mizo raised stones in memory of the deceased. The use of wood or stone, or both as memorials to the dead and to the living is also another characteristic feature of this tradition.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] B. C. Pradhan, Sakti worship in Odisha, Ph. D. Dissertation Sambalpur University, 1983, p. 39.

[2]   Now some writers denote it as “Greater India,” Akhanda Bharat etc., but the fact is that “India” of 3500 BCE is bigger than the 1947-India.

[3]  Edward Pockoke, India in Greece,

[4]  Col.Tod, The Annals and antiquities of Rajastan, Three volumes, Motilala Banrasidas, New Delhi. 

[5] Whether the Vikramadiya story is myth, mythistory, mythology etc., or not, he has been so popular and lives among the people even today through many sources. Only Vincent Smith dubbed him as myth and he was consigned accordingly.

[6]  William Jones, On the Chronology of Hindus, in The Works of sir William Jones, Vol.IV, pp,1-48, 1789.

P. J. Marshall (Ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, Cambridge university Press, UK, 1970,

[7] Dar, Mohammad Ashraf. “Earliest History Of Kashmir (Archaeological And Geological Perspective).” International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS)

Volume 3 Issue 13, December 2016.

[8] R. K. Parmu, A History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, 1819-1846, Peoples Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1969.

[9] Kubarev, G. V. “Ancient Turkic statues: Epic hero or warrior ancestor?.” Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 29.1 (2007): 136-144.

[10] Sher Ya.A. 1966, Drevnetyurkskie plemena v zerkale arkheologii. In Stepnye imperii Evrazii. St. Petersburg: Farn, pp. 92 – 165.

[11] Vassilkov, Yaroslav. “Indian” hero-stones” and the Earliest Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Bronze Age.” Journal of Indo-European Studies 39.1/2 (2011): 194.

[12] Singh, Salam Shyam. “Hero stones and other archaeological remains of Lianpui Mizoram.” Journal of History, Art and Archaeology 2.1 (2022): 53-62.

[13] Nayan, Sujeet, and Moirangthem Jackson Singh., Menhirs and Petroglyphs of Vangchhia,  Indian Journal of Archaeology 7.1 (2022): 53-84.

[14] SINGH, SS. “Archaeological Remains at Zote in Mizoram, in 50 Years after Daojali-Hading: Emerging Perspectives in the Archaeology of Northeast India,

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

The origin, development and importance of Memorial-stones in India (1)

K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, IRS (Retd.,)

Guest Faculty and Research scholar,

Department of Ancient History and Archaeology,

University of Madras,  Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Cell: 98402 92065; e- mail: kopallerao@yahoo.co.uk

Stone memorial, rock memorial for the dead: The stones erected whether they were with or without inscriptions and sculptures to commemorate the death or dead persons particularly that of warriors, fighters or soldiers are considered as Hero stones.

• The origin of the commemorative stones are mentioned with different names and expressions – Nadukal, Virakal, Hero-stone, Satikal, Govardhan pillars, Chaya-stambhas, stele, Jaya-stamba, Kirti-stambha etc., in India.
• They are also traced back to megalithic burial practices[1], where the dead were buried or cremated with their favourite goods. Where, the heroes are found to fighting with tiger, horses, elephants, camels etc. Battle field scenes on the land and sea[2] have also been depicted.  
• Considering the vast area of India of the ancient period, the location of such sites spread from Central Asia from the west to Cambodia in the east and down south to Sri Lanka.
• During the last 5500 YBP period, many changes have been taken place and therefore, the available material evidence at present and the accounts recorded in the secondary sources have to be relied upon.
• A big or identifiable stone of weight is placed at the place, where the last rites were conducted, so that the spot could be identified, remembered and yearly rites conducted.
• Irrespective of place, culture and belief system, such tradition, and liturgical practices appeared to have been taking place in the world[3].

Hero-stone, memorial stone or stele in the context: For a comparative study, the western practices are also should be taken into consideration. In the Western context, a stele or occasionally stela, is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than its width, erected in the ancient world as a monument. The surfaces of the stele often have text, ornamentation, or both and they are inscribed, carved in relief, or painted. A traditional Western gravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words “stele” and “stelae” are most consistently applied in archaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt, China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America. Incidentally, India is not mentioned here. A comprehensive and integrated study of the memorial stones is made, the connection among them could be noted. As this is depended upon the religious beliefs like soul, transmigration of soul, life after death, rebirth, karma and other related issues, generally, such belief system points to the East. It is well known that Hindu, Buddhist and Jains believed in them. As Buddhism was dominant during the first centuries and spread far and wide throughout the world, such ideas were also spread along with them[4]. The Pythagorean, Aesop’s fables[5] and other connections have already been accepted by the scholars[6]. Through Pythagoras, the concept soul, transmigration of soul etc., were transmitted to the west[7]. Thus, the commonality can be noted in the global perspective, in the memorial stone erection culture also.

Stone usage continues from Paleolithic to 21st century culture: Stone, forms of stone, stone structures, stone implements etc., have been a common feature of Indians used even today in 21st century. The grinding, crushing, pounding and milling processes are carried on by stones only, but with various forms and fitted with mechanical, electro-mechanical systems for mechanization. Domestic electrical appliances like – Mixies and grinders have been changing their names, sizes, shapes, colours and technology (mechanical, electrical, electronic), but stone cannot be replaced with any other thing[8]. Grinding characteristics of raw and parboiled rice were evaluated in various wet grinding systems, namely, mixer grinder, stone grinder and colloid mill[9]. The rotation of the stone is made vertical or horizontal with one or two or more rotating stones, but, stones continue to form part and parcel of such Domestic electrical appliances. Now, miniaturized kitchen stone tools are also made and sold in the market. Thus, the usage of stone has been part and parcel of man since the Paleolithic age.

Lithic form and size may vary, but purpose did not change: Coming to burial, the other forms are studied. A menhir, standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone also comes under this category. Here, menhir = man + hir = man + tall = tall man or man of repute, thus, a person did something marvellous and thus to be remembered. In the European context, they are called as cromlech (ring of standing stones), dolmen[10] (type of single chamber megalith tomb), henge (type of Neolithic earth work), stone circle etc., conveying and denoting the same depending upon the language and area. As the Paleolithic man and society also believed that man had rebirth and he would be reborn etc., they arranged such stone structures aligning with the cardinal points. Or the sacrificial days had to be remembered once or twice in a year and thus, the near and dear used to come there and pay homage to their fathers, forefathers etc.  In Buddhist rituals, stone circles were used that is pointed out below. As these structures continued to exist for many millions or thousands of years, they would have been subjected to disturbances. Particularly, the grave goods would have been taken away by the categories of tomb raiders and grave looters. Whatever left was discovered by the local village people and archaeologists and studied by the researchers.

For whom the stones were erected?: Researchers on Hero-stones have studied about the cause of erecting memorial stones for the people as follows[11]:

• people who died to protect their livestock from theft; while retrieving it after the attack
• people involved themselves were killed in cattle raiding
• people who died while defending their community and ruler from external attack; people died on the onslaught of a stronghold
• people who died to defend women and children
• people devoured by wild animals, most commonly tigers;
• people who freed the village from the threat of wild animals and died thereafter,
• people who died after a snake bite
• people who committed religious suicide
• women who died in pregnancy or childbirth / suicide victims.
• The warriors / soldiers who sacrificed their lives for saving their villages, towns, state, or territories.

For all these categories, hero-stones / memorial stones were erected and venerated to glorify their sacrifice.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

09-05-2024

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[1] The Megalithic burials have pits or stone chambers or rock-cut chambers or urns or sarcophagi, etc., externally marked by either one or a combination of more than one of the features like cairn-heap, cairn-circle, stone-circle, kodakkal, topikkal, menhir, etc., and some of the burial types like dolmen are partly buried and partly above the ground and pit burials and urn burials, in some cases, do not have any surface markers. At several sites monuments such as menhirs, kodakkals  and dolmens are without any artefactual remains and appear to be symbolic.

[2] The hero stones kept at the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, Goa (12^th century CE) and Eksar (11^th century CE) in Mumbai have the depiction of naval warfare. The Old Goa hero stones belong to the Goa Kadambas who ruled Goa from 950-1300 CE. The Eksar hero stones were depicted during the reign of king Bhoja of Malwa in 1020 CE.

Tripati, Sila. Ships on hero stones from the west coast of India,  International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35.1 (2006): 88-96.

[3] Construction of tomb, tomb worship etc., of the day have not changed much with all modern day embellishments, as the stone parts of the tomb are manufactured in the factories with sophisticated machinery.

[4] Pococke, Edward. India in Greece; Or, Truth in Mythology... Griffin, 1856.

[5] Aesop’s Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE and they were imitated from the Panchatantra stories of India.

[6] Richrd von Garbe,  The Philosophy of Ancient India (2nd ed.; Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1899).

…………………………, India and Christianity: An Investigation of Religious and Historical Connections, Tübingen, Germany: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1914.

[7] Arthur B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads, ed. C. R. Lanman nHarvard Oriental Series,” Vol. XXXII; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925).

[8]  The manufacturers of mixies and grinders of different categories have R & D sections, where research has been going on about the usage of stones, their sizes and shapes, weight etc. The  body might have been changed with metal sheet, plastic, fibre-glass and other materials for cost-effective, the stones cannot be replaced.

[9] Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., &  Subramanian, R. (2008). Grinding characteristics and batter quality of rice in different wet grinding systems. Journal of food engineering, 88(4), 499-506.

[10] A dolmen  or portal tomb is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or “table”. Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance.In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone “skeleton”.

[11] Trinco, Letizia. Heroes Beyond the Texts: Sacrifice, Death, and After life, in the Iconography of Southern Maharashtra’s Hero-Stones.” Indologica Taurinensia 40 (2014): 341-363.