Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (6)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (6)

Cephalometry, the measurement of skulls – upper part: The people of different countries appeared with the heads i.e., the size, shape etc., so that they could be identified. Thus, the visual studies turned to measurement methodology, thus, collecting the skulls.

Cephalometry is the study and measurement of the head, usually the human head, especially by medical imaging such as radiography.

Craniometry, the measurement of the cranium (skull), is a large subset of cephalometry. Cephalometry also has a history in phrenology, which is the study of personality and character as well as physiognomy, which is the study of facial features.

Cephalometry as applied in a comparative anatomy context informs biological anthropology. In clinical contexts such as dentistry and oral and maxillofacial surgery, cephalometric analysis helps in treatment and research; cephalometric landmarks guide surgeons in planning and operating.

Craniology, the study of skulls: During the 18th and 19th centuries, the European theologians, philosophers, scientists and a host of experts started researching into the human past, the origin of the human race and their progress, development and other achievements. At that time, they started digging out graves and studying the skulls. Thus, they divided the skulls into –

• Dolichocephalic = lengthy, elongated,  parabolic type skulls
• Mesocephalic = medium type of skulls, neither elongated nor circular shaped skulls.
• Brachycephalic = circular type, round formed skulls.

Cephalic indexes of skull shapes

The above picture is taken from Wikisource[1].

Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:

Females	Males	Scientific term	Meaning	Alternative term
< 75	< 75.9	dolichocephalic	‘long-headed’	dolicocranial, elogated
75 to 83	76 to 81	mesaticephalic	‘medium-headed’	mesocephalic; mesocranial
> 83	> 81.1	brachycephalic	‘short-headed’	brachycranial

Craniometery made the osteologists more enthusiastic to create more indexes – nasal index, lip, jaw, teeth and so on[2]. The cephalic index was also linked with the teeth and that was also included in the race science[3].

How the skulls were measured and classified..

Hair colour and racial interpretation: The form, type and colour of the hair are also related to the three major races.

Asian	round to slightly oval-shaped follicles	Straight to wavy hair
Caucasiun	Oval-shaped curly hair	Straight to curly hair
Afro	Oval to Elliptical follicles	Curly to coiled hair

The RHS type- hard, rough, straight

Middle – in between

The LHS – curled, wavy, slight wavy and soft

The Nasal Index: Many skulls were measured by taking samples from throughout the world and such data was used for many interpretations, even related to the nose.

The physiological features and measurements are also used and the experts grouped them as follows:

Eye colour for race: Eye colour is determined by the amount of melanin (mostly eumelanin) in the stroma of the iris, plus the density of the stroma cells.  The stroma is those fine bundles of fibres that make the interesting little lines in your Iris.

chromosome 15 – a gene labelled by 1 and by 2 (Brown)	Melanin content	Eye color seems to be mostly a matter of three genes
brown or black	More eumelanin in the stroma	chromosome 15 – a gene labelled bey 1 and by 2 (Brown)
Green	High pheomelanin	chromosome 19 having a dominant allele
Blue	little melanin	chromosome 19 called gey.
light purplish colour	melanin is extremely low

Blood and race: Till the 20^th century, the race scientists classified blood into – Royal, blue, full, pure, impure, brown, mixed and so on. Now, they classify as – A+, A-, B+,  B-, O+, O-, AB+, AB-. Associating with race as follows:

• African American: 47% O-positive, 24% A-positive, and 18% B-positive
• Latin American: 53% O-positive, 29% A-positive, and 9% B-positive
• Asian: 39% O-positive, 27% A-positive, and 25% B-positive
• Caucasian: 37% O-positive, 33% A-positive, and 9% B-positive

Blood stain, remnants collected from bone and skeletal remains: Blood stains and remnants could be collected from the bone and skeletal remains also. The bone and skeletal remains are also exported for many reasons, particularly for laboratory usage. It has also to be noted that the genetic method of testing samples are destructive in nature and the sent samples cannot be received back in the same form or otherwise. Generally, they are not returned.

Blood samples collected, disposal etc and reaching genetic laboratories:  Daily blood is collected from the crores of patients for testing purposes. Generally, it is claimed that the blood after testing is disposed off by incineration, bleaching, autoclaving, microwaving, etc. Samples are also going to “bio-banks,” for carrying out further research such as cancer research or medication testing with the information – person’s age, gender, diagnosis, and so on.. Thus, many times, the owner of the blood may not be knowing what is happening with his blood sample. As the genetic studies claim that they get blood from known and unknown sources, but with the required information, it is evident under the guise of “pathological research,” they get these samples also. While the samples taken for genetic research are claimed that they are extracted with individual consent, whereas, from other sources, it is not known how they decide all the factors that are drawn for their conclusion.  Generally, the persons involved in the genetic studies assert they “get the consent of the sample donor”.

Genetic studies implications: The genetic studies have been again revived under the guise of DNA research all over the world. Millions or perhaps billions of $, £, €, ₹ etc. are spent all over the world. Perhaps, the foreign companies produce and manufacture laboratory equipments, instruments and provide services that may get benefited, as they continuously get the business. After the World Wars and the race superiority that led to the genocide of millions of people directly and indirectly, such race related genetic studies were banned. Even in the 21^st century with all the advanced science and technology, laboratories with computerized equipments and instruments, such genetics are one way or the other again oriented towards the same issues of race, stock, casta, caste, blood and other related problems. Even the disease related research studies also moving towards eugenics and thus race promotion[4]. The Corona has not perhaps taught a lesson to the scientists or the rulers or the laboratories, how such studies could lead to catastrophe resulting in the death of millions and millions of people.

The public / taxpayers should get benefit: When crores of rupees, taxpayers’ money is used for the studies, the public might ask the question, “What is the use of these tests and results”? After all the studies with scientific qualifications, technical knowledge, sophisticated equipments and instruments, finally, if they say that Indians are Aryans, Dravidians, or mixed race, both came from outside, from Africa and so on, what is the use? Already, the politicians fight elections based on caste and the votes vote with such candidates. In fact, where a particular caste of people are dominant or more, only candidates of that caste is made to contest. Now, there has been a demand for a caste-based census to be conducted.

Peace-breaking research is not required: If the genetic studies are oriented towards confirming the same old and discarded hypotheses and theories, then, the people would be again pitted against each other. So why then, such divisive, disruptive peace-breaking research is required? Therefore, much care and responsibility have to be taken in monitoring and controlling such lab-oriented micro-biological research with human samples. With their results, reportedly obtained out of 100, 1000, 10,000 or 1,00,000, they might come out with attractive hypotheses and theories. Their research papers would be continuously published in the global research journals and books with the certificates like “peer reviewed” and also with “conflict of interest” and of course with “caution,” just like the pharmaceutical manufacturers warn or advise with “side effects” printed in very-very small fonts on a paper that has to be unfolded 8 0r 16 times to read and understand. 

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

22-06-2024

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[1]  Popular Science, Monthly volum.59, p.394; https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Popular_Science_Monthly_Volume_59.djvu/404

[2] Blumenfeld, Jodi. “Racial identification in the skull and teeth.” The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 8.1 (2000).

[3] Ahmed, H. M., N. F. Al-Khawaja, and Mohammed Nahidh. “Assessment of palatal dimensions in a sample of Iraqi adults with different facial forms.” Iraqi Orthod J 10.1 (2014): 8-11.

[4] Phelan, Jo C., Bruce G. Link, and Naumi M. Feldman. “The genomic revolution and beliefs about essential racial differences: a backdoor to eugenics?.” American sociological review 78.2 (2013): 167-191.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (5)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – from Archaeology to Technology, but reaching race and eugenics (5)

The European and American struggle against race: The myth of race originated among the whites of the European countries and with them, it spread to the USA also, with “Pilgrim Progress”. Under the guise of scientific studies, such race researches were encouraged and then debunked [1] them as “Man’s most dangerous myth.” It is now generally acknowledged that the term ‘race’ entered English early in the 16^th century. This was also the time when the term was acquiring currency in other European languages, for example ‘rassa’ and ‘race’ in French, ‘razza’ in Italian, ‘raca’ in Portuguese, and ‘raza’ in Spanish. By the middle of the 16^th century, one common meaning was beginning to gain ground. The Europeans were dividing themselves based on common ancestry, common language, common faith, etc.. Race began to refer to family, lineage, and breed. In modern times also, they pursued such unscientific hypotheses and theories to prove the “white man’s burden.” Even after debunking the race, it has been resurrected through genetics in the sophisticated laboratories. The race hypotheses and theories with related factors of skin colour, skull shape-size, morphology and others are briefly reviewed in the context.

The Caucasian, Europid or Europoid race: The Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) is a racial classification of humans based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. The Caucasian race was historically regarded as a biological taxon which, depending on which of the historical race classifications was being used, usually included ancient and modern populations from all or parts of Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history, the term denoted one of three purported major races of humankind (those three being Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid). In the United States, the root term Caucasian is still in use as a synonym for white or of European, Middle Eastern, or North African ancestry and now it is used by the Indian researchers also.

Nordic race, Nordicism etc: The Europeans also started to find out which nationality was more pure than others with identifiable morphological features. Thus, the concept of Nordic race originated in 19^th-century anthropology. It was once considered a race or one of the putative sub-races into which some late-19^th to mid-20^th century anthropologists divided the Caucasian race, claiming that its ancestral homelands were Northwestern and Northern Europe, particularly to populations such as Anglo-Saxons, Germanic peoples, Balts, Baltic Finns, Northern French, and certain Celts, Slavs and Ghegs. The supposed physical traits of the Nordics included light eyes, light skin, tall stature, and dolichocephalic skull; their psychological traits were deemed to be truthfulness, equitability, a competitive spirit, naivete, reservedness, and individualism. In the early 20th century, the belief that the Nordic race constituted the superior branch of the Caucasian race gave rise to the ideology of Nordicism.

The Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior branch of the “Aryan race” constituting a master race (Herrenvolk): The belief that the Nordic phenotype is superior to all others was originally embraced as “Anglo-Saxonism” in England and the United States, “Teutonicism” in Germany, and “Frankisism” in Northern France. The notion of the superiority of the “Nordic race” and the superiority of the Northwestern European nations that were associated with this supposed race influenced the United States’ Immigration Act of 1924 (which effectively banned or severely limited the immigration of Italians, Jews, and other Southern and Eastern Europeans) and the later Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, and it was also present in other countries outside Northwestern Europe and the United States, such as Australia, Canada, and South Africa. By the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior branch of the “Aryan race” and constituted a master race (Herrenvolk). The full application of this belief system—the invasion of Poland and further conquest in the pursuit of Lebensraum, ‘living space’—was the immediate catalyst for World War II and led directly to the industrial mass murder of six million Jews and eleven million other victims in what is now known as the Holocaust. Thus, it is amply evident that the Europeans were responsible for the creation of such racial myths leading to the World Wars. Now, again the Europeans and Americans have been trying to match such ideology ith their genetic studies. How the race factors were developed are studied briefly.

The four categorizations of race continue: Natural taxonomic categories of the human species were considered by Linnaeus in 1758 for the classification of race. He differentiated Homo sapiens afar and Homo sapiens Europeans and added four geographical subdivisions of humans:

1. White Europeans,
2. red Americans,
3. yellow Asians, and
4. black Africans.

Although Linnaeus intended an objective classification, he used both biological and cultural data in his subdivision descriptions.

Blumenbach. in 1775, categorized humans into five “races,” which is similar to Linnaeus’s classifications. Coon in 1962, on the basis of phenotypic physical features, further refined classification into five races; he called the races as –

1. Caucasoid,
2. Mongoloid,
3. Australoid,
4. Negroid, and
5. Capoid.

Despite disagreement among anthropologists, this classification remains in use by many researchers, as well as lay persons.

1. Caucasoids,
2. Mongoloids,
3. Negroids, and
4. Australoids (Australian aborigines) are four major groups considered in the world.

Even today, these four categories are faithfully and strictly followed by the genetic engineers, hereditary experts and inherent scientists.

Genetic interpretation of race: The conception of “race” here proposed is based upon the following fundamental postulates:

• that the original ancestral species population was genetically relatively heterogeneous;

• that by migration away from this original ancestral group, individual families became dispersed over the earth;

• that some of the groups thus dispersed became geographically isolated from one another and remained so isolated for more or less considerable periods of time;

(4) that upon all these isolated groups several of the following factors came into play as conditions leading to evolutionary change:

(a) the genetic drift or inherent variability of the genotypic, materials composing each individual member of the group;

(b) physical change in the action of a gene associated, in a partial manner, with a particular character, that is, gene mutation.

Skin Color: Actually, it is because of colour that the Europeans started postulating the race hypothesis slowly developing into a theory. When the European explorers started visiting other countries or the people of other countries visiting their countries, they could notice the change in the skin colours of the Africans and the Asians. Later they could note the colour difference of the Chinese and Americans. While the North Americans appeared reddish, the South American were brownish. Thus, the five colours also formulated to match. Human populations obviously differ in average skin colour. Many people consider skin colour the most important indicator of “race,” and they sometimes treat others differently solely on this basis. But anthropologists, in addition to being critical of prejudice, also note that skin colour is not a good indicator of ancestry. For example, dark skin is commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa. However, natives of southern India have skin as dark or darker than that of many Africans. Yet these people are not closely related to Africans, either genetically or historically. The amount of melanin in the skin seems to be related to the climate in which a person lives. Next to the skin colour, the head played a crucial role in identifying a race.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

21-06-2024

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[1] Montagu, MF Ashley. Man’s most dangerous myth: The fallacy of race. Columbia University Press, 1945.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology, but moving to race (4)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology, but moving to race (4)

The claim of Industrialized Urban civilization: The Keeladi related news, reports and related papers published papers mentioned about “Industrialized Urban civilization.” It is evident that to compare and equate with the IVC, this type of overstated claims are made. In fact, when they claim what the civilization was about “Industrialized,” what types of industries were there, tools and machinery used, goods manufactured, workers and experts engaged etc., the related details have to be explicitly provided. Similarly, for the status of about “Urban,” also just like IVC, they have to produce evidence of town planning, plumbing, drainage system etc,. With a few examples, they cannot jump to a conclusion and finalize that the Porunai River civilization[1] was as much or more civilized than that of IVC[2].  One has to prove how most of the civilized processes of the people were industrialized i.e, mechanized using specific apparatus, instruments, gadgets, appliances, tools, machines, machinery etc., just verbose would not help to prove such status during 1000 BCE or 2000 BCE.

How to read IVC signs with Tamizhi?: Sangam, Sangam literature, Sangam era, Sangam civilization and such other terms and expressions are repeatedly and interchangeably used in the news, reporting and other narratives. But, they forget the implications of script, language and literature.

1. All the IVC signs, symbols, pictograms etc., should be equated with Tamizhi and read accordingly.
2. When they believe or accept the “Out of Africa” theory, then, all the migration including from the Central Asia have to be correlated with the Sangam period.
3. As pointed out Pichappan pointed out three migrations of “Dravidians” into India.
4. When the internal evidences of the literature point to certain dates and chronology, based on these datings, they cannot be pushed back to such dates, as literary factors do not co-operate.

Position about the race of the people as on April 2023: It may be noted that the forensic bio-archaeological investigations conducted by experts G Pathmanathan, Raghavan Pathmanathan, and T Satyamurthy, on the 169 skeletons collected from Adichanallur, have implied that three major racial groups –

1. Caucasoid,
2. Mongolriver 3,200 years ago. The Chief Minister said that it was confirmed by AMS carbon dating which was done abroad, and
3. Negroid (Australoid) — may have existed in Adichanallur[3].

As per FORDISC analysis[4], some skeletons reflect mixed racial traits and very few of them display similarities with the contemporary Tamil ethnic group, they said.

The racial affinities of skeletal remains recovered from Adichanallur have been further classified into –

• 30% Mongoloids,
• 35% Caucasoids,
• 16% Negroids,
• 6% Australoids,
• 8% ethnic Dravidian, and
• 5% mixed trait populations[5].

They published a paper in 2010, in which they briefed[6], “Adichanallur, a remote village situated near Thirunelvelli city in Tamil Nadu (South India), lies near Tutucorin harbor. It has a long and continuous history of human occupation, including a three-tier prehistoric cemetery covering an area of slightly more than 200 acres. It is one of the largest and the oldest early Iron Age cemeteries of South Asia. The recent excavation (2004-06) of this site by the Archaeological Survey of India has yielded primary burials of 85 human skeletons placed in a squatting position in giant, monochrome or dual-coloured clay urns. This paper discusses the geology of the site and the cranial morphology, with a focus on the racial affinities, of the recovered skeletons.” Meanwhile, a reply from the Department of Archaeology said genomic studies are underway at the Ancient DNA Laboratory in Madurai Kamaraj University (MKU) in association with Harvard University’s David Reich Lab. Thus, the experts under the guise of genetics or DNA, again going back to old race and racial classification.

Why more emphasis is given to race?: Thus, it is evident that the experts involved appeared to have more bothered or worried about the race question of the people rather than other factors.

• FORDISC is a software program created by Stephen Ousley and Richard Jantz. It is designed to help forensic anthropologists investigate the identity of a deceased person by providing estimates of the person’s size, ethnicity, and biological sex based on the osteological material recovered.
• In 2012 research was presented at the 81^st Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, which concluded FORDISC ancestry determination was not always consistent, and the programs’ recommended acceptance criteria did not separate correct and incorrect determinations.
• The authors concluded that the program does not perform to expectations and should be used with caution.

So naturally, the question arises – why the whole research is directed towards race, when the historians categorically deny that there is no race. Of course, as pointed out elsewhere, the UN also passed a resolution condemning race throes that were pseudoscientific. Now also using scientific methods, laboratory and other technologies, the research is directed to determine the race of the people. So again, the blood, oesteology, craniometry, morphology etc., are measured only with different or modern terminology, but the same old concepts. 

National seminar on Reflections on Cultural Development – An Archaeological Perspective November 2023: The Department of Archaeology conducted a national seminar on Reflections on Cultural Development – An Archaeological Perspective on November 23 and 24, 2023 on the occasion of Muthamizh Arignar Kalaignar Centenary celebrations at Madurai. The proceedings were also published in which the paper, “Ancient Genomic Investigation of the Archaeological Human, Animal, Plant and Microbial Remains from Tamil Nadu, India” authored by some 23 experts[7] including Kumaresan Ganesan, Sivanantham Ramalingam, and Rajan K. However, about the dating of the biological samples, they have not committed anything categorically. The rough or relative dates already given are repeated with the tag, “Of these, about 35 samples predominantly from Kondagai, and Adichanallur were identified to have potential skeletal remains to proceed further for extracting ancient DNA and being investigated at the dedicated ancient clean lab facility established at Madurai Kamaraj University.” The proceedings of the seminar can be viewed and listened to from this video[8]. R. N. Pichappan stuck to his topic on 23-11-2023, “Birth place of Dravidians Linguistic and NRY[9] study.” Though, he started with the assertion that “Dravidian” is a linguistic, cultural transformation and subdivided gene group, he proceeded to racial connotation.

“Dravidians” came from Africa and some settled down in western ghats.

• Dravidian originated in Tamil Nadu / Western Ghats
• By demic expansion, dispersed to Northern India
• Central Asia arrival restricted the Dravidian to pockets in North India – language replacements.

This is how he concluded. So “Dravidians” came from Africa, and settled down at the western ghats. By demic expansion (demic = characteristic of or pertaining to a people or population), the expanded to Northern India i.e., went out of India. Then, again they entered from Central Asia, thus found at some pockets in North India and then, finally settling down in Tamilnadu.

Genetic studies and dating: As the genetic experts directly or indirectly follow the same old method and principles of race etc, they also faithfully take the C-14, TL and other dating of the objects associated with the organic remains and construct a table as follows:

Dating method	Material dated	Age range dated
Carbon-14 to nitrogen-14 (radiocarbon)	Organic remains, archaeological artefacts	Up to 60,000 years ago
Luminescence	Tephra, loess, lake sediments	Up to 100,000 years ago
Fission track	Tephra	10,000 to 400 million years ago
Potassium-40 to argon-40	Volcanic rocks	20,000 to 4.5 billion years ago
Uranium-238 to lead-206	Volcanic rocks	1 million to 4.5 billion years ago

With this, the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Megalithic and related metallic cultures are also studied. Without any definiteness about the “monogenetic” or “heterogenetic” origin of the human race, the genetic experts debate about “Out of Africa” or European Neanderthal. Even the disease-related studies boil down to eugenics and race leading to an old problem.

• Men cannot be made as mere samples or subjects for their vested and interested studies and research.
• The pharmaceutical laboratories have been using African and Asian people for their drugs and formulations.
• The Corona period also revealed how the loopholes in the research laboratories could play havoc. Now, the side effects of vaccine are discussed.
• Therefore, connected experts should have patience and not to interpret the data and information to divide people.
• Science and technological men and machines should be useful to humanity and world peace.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

20-06-2024

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[1] Director, Porunai River Civilization (in Tamil), Tamilnadu State Archaeology Department Chennai, 2021.

Click to access porunai_text.pdf

[2] The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, MK Stalin told the state assembly on September 9, 2021, that the paddy and soil that came out of an urn unearthed during an excavation in Sivakalai in the Tuticorin district in the state has confirmed that civilization had flourished on the banks of Porunai or Thamirabarani y US lab Beta Analytic. As per the historians, the graffiti found in the Indus Valley Civilization and the one encountered in South India is about 80% identical. It suggests that there may be some form of linguistic connection between the Indus Valley Civilization, South India, and Sri Lanka.

[3] Indian Express, Archaeologists compare DNA samples to affirm Adichanallur early inhabitants were ancestors of present populace, S Godson Wisely Dass, Updated on: 30 Apr 2023, 6:49 am.

[4] FORDISC is a software program created by Stephen Ousley and Richard Jantz. It is designed to help forensic anthropologists investigate the identity of a deceased person by providing estimates of the person’s size, ethnicity, and biological sex based on the osteological material recovered.

[5] https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2023/Apr/30/archaeologists-compare-dna-samples-to-affirmadichanallur-early-inhabitants-were-ancestors-of-present-populace-2570626.html

[6] Pathmanathan, R., Pathmanathan, G., Satyamurthy, T., & Talwar, I. (2010). Secrets of a Cemetery: The Geology and Forensic Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Maritime People of Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu. Quaternary Australasia, 27(1), 2-7.

[7]  G. Kumaresan et al, Ancient Genomic Investigation of the Archaeological Human, Animal, Plant and Microbial Remains from Tamil Nadu, India, in  Reflections on Cultural Development – An Archaeological Perspective , Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, 2023, pp.177-206.

[8] IN COMMEMORATION OF THE CENTENARY CELEBRATION OF MUTHAMIZH ARIGNAR KALAIGNAR NATIONAL SEMINAR .4, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiMTfAjUR94

[9] Along ∼95% of its length the Y chromosome is male-specific and effectively haploid, since it is exempt from meiotic recombination. Therefore, this Y-chromosome segment where X-Y crossing over is absent has been designated as the non-recombining region of the Y chromosome or NRY.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (3)

Paddy known in 2020 and husk thereafter in the excavations: The details given by the leading dailies (The Hindu, Times of India, Deccan Herald) continue as follows: When the MKU teams informed that the excess production of rice prompted the settlers to set sail in the seas to far-away land that are chronicled in several literature, the ASI report, which is yet to be made public, such reports were in circulation in the media. Therefore, it is evident that the excavators or some persons were leaking out findings partly, partially or otherwise for sensation or publicity. While carbonised paddy was found on the stratified surface at Agaram, it was found in an offering pot at Sivagalai[1]. These are to be sent to labs for carbon dating and identification of the grains – whether they are rice or millet or any other type of grain, and whether they were local grains or imported grains, as this will throw more light upon the life of the people during that period[2]. It may be recalled that it was the carbon dating done on a carbonised paddy grain in Sivagalai, which helped determine the age of the Porunai River civilization to 3200 years old, dating to 1155 BC[3].

Husk or hull of paddy of rice or millet – to be decided: However, it can be noted that the word paddy is used and it is related to rice only. Detailed analyses of plants and soil from Keeladi, a Sangam-era archaeological site near Madurai in Tamil Nadu, have shown that surplus production of rice in the area might have paved the way for the increase in trade 2,000 years ago, even as artefacts unearthed show that an industrialized urban civilization existed on the banks of River Vaigai[4]. However, certain researchers have already concluded this point and started publishing their papers also. The above finding by the French Institute of Pondicherry will be part of the final report of the first two phases of excavation at Keeladi, 12 km southeast of Madurai, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2014 and 2015[5]. As many as 5,800 artefacts were unearthed during the first two phases, but the ASI withdrew from the excavations after it announced that there was no “significant finding” in the third phase.

The press reporting was intriguing: The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) took over in 2017 and has conducted five phases of excavation so far. It is likely to launch the ninth round next year. Sources in the know told (Deccan Herald) that analyses conducted by a leading palaeontologist for the past few months have concluded that there was surplus rice production in and around Keeladi. “Artefacts found from Keeladi have indicated that trade ties flourished between inhabitants of Keeladi and other countries in the form of coins and other items. And the results of the analyses serve as further proof of the trade ties, and excess rice production played a crucial role,” the source added. Archaeologists who worked in Keeladi at different times told DH that overwhelming evidence of industries based on beads and terracotta having existed there were unearthed in the past eight years. “Surplus rice production might have flourished those industries as the inhabitants set out in the sea to unfurl their flag in far-away nations,” another source said. Here, that, “leading palaeontologist” has not been named and the “source” not revealed, yet, all these are appearing in the public domain.

Genetics liking Tamil merchants with Mesopotamia: Few researchers have already started publishing papers about the existence of Tamil merchants at Mesopotamia based on genetic interpretation[6]. They conclude, “Taken together, our mtDNA analysis shows that mtDNAs of these ancient Mesopotamians probably originated from Indian merchants. This, thus rules out the hypothesis that these samples comprise an ancient component (Upper Paleolithic) of macrohaplo group M involved in the founding of the Mesopotamian civilization. Therefore, the present study sheds new insights on the understanding of the origins of ancient Mesopotamian macrohaplogroup M lineages and the influence of Indian-Tamil merchants to Mesopotamian gene pool during trans-oceanic trade.” Had the “Dravidians” included Telugu, Kannada, Malayala and other languages, then, such merchants must have also existed there.  Perhaps, soon such claims be added.

The date of the rice husk awaited: The findings are significant as carbon dating of artefacts found in the fourth phase date back to 600 BCE, pushing the Sangam Era behind by three centuries than it was thought and making it contemporaneous with the Gangetic Plains Civilisation of north India. Rice husks found in burial urns at Konthagai, the burial site of Keeladi, over the three phases have also been sent for DNA analysis[7]. It may be noted that rice husks found in an urn in Sivagalai, another excavation site, dated back to 3,200 years[8] or 1155 BCE. Refusing to share any details, ASI’s Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna told DH in December 2022, that the report on the first two phases of the Keeladi excavation was in the final stages and is likely to be completed in a couple of months. “We have finished 90% of the work, but the report compilation is taking time. The diagrams are ready, and they have been incorporated into the report. We are exercising utmost caution and not rushing because of the sensitivities attached to the issue. One thing I can assure you is the report will be comprehensive,” Ramakrishna said.

The gap between IVC and Sangam to be narrowed down: The second source quoted said 23 samples have been sent for carbon dating analysis to Beta Analytical Lab in Florida, US and other institutes in the country and added that results of almost all of them have arrived except for a few. Nearly 18,000 artefacts, including over 2,200 from the latest phase, have been unearthed from Keeladi, bearing testimony to the rich urban life ancient Tamils had lived, thereby providing further archaeological evidence to the Sangam Literature. The archaeological findings have created a buzz with researchers and archaeologists in Tamil Nadu, calling them significant as they “narrow down” the gap between the Tamil urban settlements and the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC). However, they say “more evidence” should be forthcoming, while experts outside Tamil Nadu say there is no link between Keeladi and IVC. The latest excavation phase has led to the discovery of several artefacts, including dice made of ivory, an ivory gamesman, an iron knife, an antimony rod, copper pendants, ring wells, structures, rectangular-shaped ivory dice, beads, and terracotta figurines. The dating of all recovered objects have not been revealed.

Harvard Medical School, US experts at Madurai February 2023: Tamil Nadu’s first Ancient DNA Lab at the Madurai Kamaraj University has opened its doors for a team from the world-renowned David Reich Lab to assist it in extracting DNA from 30 human samples collected from burial urns unearthed during excavations with “minimal damage” as part of the efforts to provide scientific evidence to archaeological findings[9]. The team led by Kendra Sirak[10], Senior Staff Scientist at David Reich Lab of the prestigious Harvard Medical School, US, is camping in the temple town of Madurai since February 13 2023, to help the new lab analyse the samples collected from Konthagai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kodumanal[11]. Konthagai is the burial site of Keeladi, the urban habitation site that is believed to have existed between 800 BCE to 300 CE as per a recent report submitted by Archaeological Survey 2014 and 2016. The new date derived by the ASI pushes the Sangam Era behind by another 500 years than it was earlier thought to be.

Migration and admixture of races: Whether one or three, 50, 100 or more than 100 experts on the genetic studies, they come back to the same race hypotheses and theories. One such >100 experts summarize[12], “By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.”

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

19-06-2024

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[1] The Hindu, Carbonised paddy from excavations could shed more light on a variety of activities in Iron Age, say experts, T. K. Rohit, Published – September 08, 2020 12:16 pm IST – CHENNAI

[2] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/carbonised-paddy-from-excavations-could-shed-more-light-on-a-variety-of-activities-in-iron-age-say-experts/article32549834.ece

[3] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms – :~:text=It%20may%20be%20recalled%20that,old%2C%20dating%20to%201155%20BC.

[4] Deccan Herald, 2k yrs ago, surplus rice boosted trade in Keeladi, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 18 November 2022, 00:38 IST.

[5] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/2k-yrs-ago-surplus-rice-boosted-trade-in-keeladi-1163389.html

[6] Palanichamy, M. G., Mitra, B., Debnath, M., Agrawal, S., Chaudhuri, T. K., & Zhang, Y. P. (2014). Tamil merchant in ancient Mesopotamia. Plos one, 9(10), e109331.

[7] Times of India, Tamil Nadu: Paddy husk found in burial urn at Keeladi, TNN / Updated: Sep 17, 2022, 08:49 IST.

[8] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/paddy-husk-found-in-burial-urn-at-keeladi/articleshow/94258143.cms

[9] Deccan Herald, Harvard team helps Tamil Nadu lab with ancient DNA extraction and analysis, ETB Sivapriyan DHNS Published 16 February 2023, 22:51 IST; Last Updated: 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST DHNS Last Updated : 17 February 2023, 09:38 IST.

[10] Kendra Sirak, Senior Staff Scientist – https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/people/kendra-sirak

[11] https://www.deccanherald.com/india/harvard-team-helps-tamil-nadu-lab-with-ancient-dna-extraction-and-analysis-1191996.html

[12] Narasimhan, V.M., Patterson, N., Moorjani, P., Rohland, N., Bernardos, R., Mallick, S., Lazaridis, I., Nakatsuka, N., Olalde, I., Lipson, M. and Kim, A.M., 2019. The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia. Science, 365(6457), p.eaat7487.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (2)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (2)

Project Title: Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach: The MKU-RUSA supported research project entitled “Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach”, to work in a collaborative venture between the Dept. of Archaeology, Govt. of Tamil Nadu and School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University[1]. As most of the archaeological sites have been near to Madurai, MKU might have chosen for the research and setting up the laboratory. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), launched in 2013 aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational institutions. The central funding (in the ratio of 60:40 for general category States, 90:10 for special category states and 100% for union territories) would be norm-based and outcome dependent. The funding would flow from the central ministry through the state governments/union territories to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the identified institutions. The funding to states would be made on the basis of a critical appraisal of State Higher Education Plans, which would describe each state’s strategy to address issues of equity, access and excellence in higher education. Yet, the states blaming the Centre for the sanctioning and allocation of funds is noted very often.

Department of Genetics Madurai Kamaraj University:  Department of Genetics was established in 1990. The former heads of the Department were –

1. Prof. T. J. Panidan,
2. Prof. S. Mathavan and
3. Prof. P. Gunasekaran.

Cancer Genetics and Microbial Genetics are the broad research areas of the Department, at present. Complex regulations in cancer cells and microbes have been investigated with molecular genetics, genomics and proteomice since 1990, 45 major research projects were completed by the former and current faculty members of the Genetic Department and 55 Ph.D students were awarded from the Department. At present, there are 7 major projects being investigated in the Department with the support of DBT, DST, ICMR, and UGC. Cancer Genetics Laboratory in the Department of Genetics is focusing on understanding the altered signalling pathways and their regulation In gastric, liver and breast §§J1§#F§ to recognize therapeutically vulnerable targets. So, now it is evident that the department has turned towards genetic studies in a different manner focused on the people of the ancient Tamilgam.

MKU ancient DNA research oriented to TN Archaeology: Dr. Kumaresan is involved in investigating ancient genomics of the archaeological human, animal, plant, and bacterial remains from the archaeological excavations of  Dept.  of  Archaeology, Government of  TamilNadu,  India[2]. The Ancient  DNA  Program  of  MKU  is  progressing in  the following  aspects: 

1. Ancient  Human  DNA  Analysis, 
2. Animal  DNA  Analysis, 
3. Plant  DNA Analysis,
4. Sedimental DNA analysis,
5. Microbial DNA Analysis,
6. Organic Molecular Analysis,
7. Proteomics,  etc.

The  human  and animal skeletal and  floral  remains  from  Keeladi,  Kondagai, Adichanallur,  Sivagalai,  Kodumanal  and  Mayiladumparai are  investigated  in  genomic  contexts with the contemporary modern and ancient genomes across the globe to understand the ancient biology  as  well  as  to  provide  biological  evidence  to  the scientific  missions  of  the Archaeology Department of Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Here, how the genetic experts would deal with Dravidian, non-Dravidian or Aryan categories has to be noted carefully. It has already been pointed out that Pitchappan has already talked about the Dravidian category.

Ancient DNA Lab was inaugurated in November 2022: The lab, which was inaugurated in November 2022, has begun preliminary work on conducting ancient DNA analysis on human, animal, and plant samples collected by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) and ASI[3]. According to a press statement from the university, the main objective of the Ancient DNA lab was to generate and analyze DNA data from the archaeological excavations of Tamil Nadu. The lab had been established following the models at the University of Chicago and Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow[4]. Professor G Kumaresan, Head, Department of Genetics, School of Biological Sciences, MKU, “We have begun the dry run. The samples are expectedly contaminated because they remained buried deep for centuries together. We are now being assisted by the Harvard team in extracting DNA from the human samples with minimal damage,” told to DH. “The team is helping us with the techniques they have successfully followed so far,” Kumaresan added. Kendra Sirak, of David Reich Lab of the prestigious Harvard Medical School, US who has so far analyzed 500 DNA samples, is an expert in extracting DNA without disturbing the skull much and lessons from her will only help those at the MKU lab learn the tricks of the trade.

DNA tests to corroborate people with Sangam period: DNA is extracted mainly from teeth and petrous bones of the human samples which is used as the primary input. “DNA is generally extracted from Calculus bone and from the root of the teeth. The extracted portion is then processed and computationally analysed. We will then compare the data of ancient DNA with global data to understand migration (of people) and the linkages with global populations,” Kumaresan added. Sirak said her team was excited to collaborate with MKU team to study DNA from people who lived in Tamil Nadu long ago. “We will combine our expertise in hopes to generate authentic ancient DNA sequences that will help us to learn more about this very important part of India,” she told DH. The results of the DNA analysis generated by the MKU lab will be cross-checked by the Harvard team to ensure that the findings are right and questions are not raised over them since the samples are contaminated with bacterial DNA. The results will then be compared with thousands of ancient and modern human genomes across the globe to explain in detail the ancient human migration and will be corroborated with Sangam Literature wherever possible. Thus, it is evident that goal has been set before the research to start, samples to come from the sites, they are to be tested in the newly set up laboratory etc.

Lab could test all biological samples: Apart from ancient DNA, the MKU team is also exploring the proteins from skeletal remains and organic molecules from the potsherds of the offering pots. Some of the molecules retrieved so far includes Floxuridine (rice), Orotic Acid (milk), Myristic Acid (myristica), Ricinoleic Acid (castor) and cholesterol (animal fats). The MKU lab has already sequenced about 1500 millions of DNA fragments from 20 samples of humans, animals, and plants. The DNA collected from the samples will help understand the agricultural and trade practices, while the organic molecular analysis would reveal the agricultural, cultural, and social practices in Tamil Nadu during 500 BCE – 2500 BCE. The retrieval of rice is significant as pollen analyses of samples from the first phases of excavations in Keeladi found that excess production of rice contributed to the growth of the urban city while fertile land played “an active role” for the evolution of the habitation. The excess production of rice prompted the settlers to set sail in the seas to far-away lands that are chronicled in several literatures, the ASI report, which is yet to be made public, says. The non-publication of excavation reports has been a drawback not only for the excavators, but also for the researchers, as they could not quote the findings for their reference. Therefore, the excavating groups, concerned departments and authorities should take the initiative to publish the reports within a reasonable time.

What Romila Thapar says about genetic studies[5]: Romila Thapar has pointed out the following in the context of genetic studies:

• It is assumed that genetic analyses can provide some evidence of human population origins and social history in India. But so far, the results have been contradictory, and historians find it difficult to use them with any certitude.
• Race as a category is unknown to traditional Indian classifications. It was imported from Britain and was used mainly by Europeans writing on Indian society, although subsequently it came to be used by Indians as well.
• Attempts have been made recently to determine the identity of the so-called “Aryans” as components of the Indian population by using DNA analysis. This is largely to ascertain whether they were indigenous to India or were foreign arrivals.
• Similar attempts have been made to trace the origins of caste groups on the basis of varna identities and record their distribution. The results so far have been contradictory and, therefore, not of much help to social historians.
• There are problems in the defining of categories and the techniques of analysis.
• Aryan is a linguistic and cultural category and not a biological one.
• Caste groups have no well-defined and invariable boundaries despite marriage codes. Various other categories have been assimilated into particular castes as part of the evolution of social history on the subcontinent.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

18-06-2024

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[1] Antiquity of peopling of Deccan – An ancient DNA approach with grant nurnber MKU-RUSA/2020/48.

[2] Ancient Genomics of the Archaeological remains of Tamil Nadu – https://mkuniversity.ac.in/new/school/sbs/kumaresan.php

[3] The Hindu, Ancient DNA and BSL 3 laboratories inaugurated in Madurai Kamaraj University, THE HINDU BUREAU, Published – November 17, 2022 10:42 pm IST – MADURAI; Updated – November 18, 2022 11:28 am IST.

[4] https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/ancient-dna-and-bsl-3-laboratories-inaugurated-in-madurai-kamaraj-university/article66150429.ece – :~:text=According%20to%20a%20press%20statement,Sahni%20Institute%20of%20Palaeosciences%2C%20Lucknow.

[5] Thapar, Romila. “Can genetics help us understand Indian social history?.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6.11 (2014): a008599.

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (1)

Antiquity and Peopling of the Deccan – an Ancient DNA approach – RUSA project – from Archaeology to Technology (1)

Treatment of explored excavated and preserved objects: In India, the ancient sites of monuments, temples etc., have been raided, as they have been at remote places and many in the depilated conditions and unprotected also.  The tomb raiding, temple looting and monument raping have been going on, as otherwise, the foreign museums could not have more and more Indian artifacts. Only a few cases were reported in India like VJA Flynn vs UOI[1], whereas, others were not reported or suppressed. This area has also been alarming, as to how they could be smuggled out of India – has been intriguing. With the increase in infrastructure development activities, it is understood that many artifacts are found, but, rarely reported. Ironically and unfortunately such excavations have led to the destruction of Paleolithic, megalithic and other historic sites[2]. The CAG report has also been pointing out such conditions[3].

Changing phases of archaeology: Nowadays, the archaeology, archaeological excavations and related issues are getting much attention in the media and the associated people have been so enthusiastic and jubilant to see such stuff and enjoy themselves. Official and non-official explorations and excavations[4] have been going on and claims of discovery of idols, sculptures, inscriptions, coins and other artifacts have been appearing the media[5].  Either ASI or the State government agencies[6] appear to indulge in such activities[7]. Such features appear almost daily or frequently by the claims of enthusiasts, amateurists and independent explorers. There have been tomb-raiding type[8] of excavations and they are rarely reported. Many claims are made, but such news-items die down within two-three days and none bothers about. Now, the menace YouTubers who also contribute their mite with exaggerated claims and embellished verbose manipulating the data and information. Only this type of blown-up, half-truth and manipulated details reach many, whereas the real or original reports are not read by the common people. Of course, the excavation conducting officials or organizations also delay in publishing the reports. With all these claims and shortcomings, crores / millions are spent on excavation activities, publication and setting up laboratories. The Ancient DNA Lab has been one of them.

2019-2000 – MKU signed a MOU with Harvard University’s David Reich Laboratory: In a first in the State, the Madurai Kamaraj University’s (MKU) School of Biological Sciences has set up a laboratory to conduct research on forensic anthropology and bio anthropology of artifacts unearthed at excavation sites, at a cost of Rs 2.5 crore under the Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)[9]. In September, 2019, the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department expressed its interest in collaborating with the MKU for research purposes and the varsity’s syndicate accepted the invitation[10]. Subsequently, the MKU signed an MoU with Harvard University’s David Reich Laboratory[11] to conduct research on findings from excavation sites across the State, including Keezhadi[12]. Following a request from the MKU in 2020, the State government allotted it Rs 2.5 crore from RUSA funds to set up a laboratory to conduct preliminary DNA sequencing from artefacts. Speaking to TNIE, MKU Vice-Chancellor J Kumar said the works for the lab have been completed now[13].

MKU DNA lab starts working on DNA: Noting that the varsity has already received preliminary reports of DNA extracted from human and animal bones, bacteria and plants from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) in Lucknow, the Head of the Department of Biological Science at MKU Prof. G Kumaresan told TNIE, “We have 30 human skeletal samples from excavation sites. After taking their CT scan and sending the reports to the Department of Forensic Medicine at the University of Copenhagen, we would conduct research in forensic anthropology and bio anthropology, forensic genetics and forensic pathology at our new lab.” He further said the department has so far extracted 500 million pieces of DNA from each sample. “We will be able to undertake extraction, computation and analysis of DNA in the new lab, which could also be called a ‘class 1000 ancient facility’ since it is designed to facilitate sensitive research, fabrication and other operations that must take place in the absence of dust, moisture and other airborne contamination,” Kumaresan added. Six researchers are employed at the lab and they have already begun to segregate and research DNA from an urn, skeletal bones and other archaeological items unearthed from excavation sites, including Keezhadi, Kodumanal and Sivakala.

2020 – Ancient DNA Lab was initiated by the Tamilnadu Government: The antiquities unearthed during the ongoing archaeological excavations at places like Keeladi, Adichchanallur, Sivagalai and Kodumanal across the state will be analyzed using modern scientific methods in reputed laboratories and institutions, said minister for Tamil language, culture and archaeology K Pandirajan[14] in August 2020. “To supplement the ongoing archaeological excavations in Tamil Nadu, Madurai Kamaraj University has taken necessary steps to establish an ‘ancient DNA lab’ at a cost of Rs 3 crore[15].… We normally depend on foreign laboratories for testing and it consumes a lot of time and energy. New initiatives like this will help get the results faster,” the minister said, while releasing “Ongoing archaeological excavations in Tamil Nadu: A status report (July 2020).”

What the Ancient DNA Lab would study about: The report, which includes graphs, fact-files and figures, shows the systematic archaeological explorations and excavations conducted across the state since the sixth season of systematic archaeological excavation was inaugurated by Chief Minister Edappadi K Palaniswami on February 19, 2020. Having recognized the valuable contribution of specialized disciplines for a deeper analysis of archaeological findings, the state Department of archaeology is collaborating with experts from such fields as archaeo-botany, molecular biology, population genetics, prehistoric archaeology, environmental archaeology and linguistic archaeology. “The department has taken up a major initiative in adopting various technologies like ground penetrating radar (GPR) survey, magnetometer survey, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) survey to identify the ideal spot for carrying out the explorations and excavations with the help of reputed institutions in India,” he said.

How it is useful for archaeology: On the trenches and quadrants laid as part of the excavations at Keeladi, Adichchanallur, Sivagalai and Kodumanal, Pandirajan said 76 trenches and 168 quadrants had been opened till the end of July. “We have collected 128 carbon samples from these sites, the highest being 97 from Keeladi and its clusters,” he said. It was to study the civilisation that flourished along the Vaigai river in detail that excavations have been taken up in the clusters of Keeladi such as Kondagai, Manalur and Agaram, he said. “The available information provides a clear idea of a habitation-industrial-burial site here.” Asked why the department was not taking any action to preserve the idols that had been returned from foreign countries, Pandiarajan said the courts concerned and the police department had to decide where these idols should go. “We are ready to take care of them. But it’s the court that should decide whether the idols should go to the temple or museum,” he said.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

17-06-2024

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[1] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Historians involved in smuggling also – The historical case of Prof. V.J.A. Flynn, a friend of many Indian historians – arrested for smuggling, jailed and deported to Australia for further proceedings!, February 17, 2022.

The historical case of Prof. V.J.A. Flynn, a friend of many Indian historians – arrested for smuggling, jailed and deported to Australia for further proceedings!

[2] Earlier, the dam construction activities resulted in such destruction, replacement and submergence of the sites. Some have been displaced, relocated, restored and reconstructed. Left outs are kept in near by place that might be converted into museum or lied there for many years. Any visitor who visits once in five or ten years could note such conditions at the dam-constructed and many protected monuments sites.

[3] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, CAG Report on missing monuments  – ASI searching for, found and lost; how and why they are missing, hiding, getting lost etc?, April 30, 2023.

CAG Report on missing monuments  – ASI searching for, found and lost; how and why they are missing, hiding, getting lost etc?

[4] Times of India, ASI stops excavation after discovery of mysterious ‘bearded man in skull cap’ image, P Naveen / TNN / Updated: Jun 14, 2019, 12:48 IST.

[5] The ASI headquarters has stopped excavation at a site in MP’s Singrauli where a mysterious engraving — of a bearded man in ‘foreign attire’ and a skull cap — was discovered on a brick in a 6th Century temple three months ago (April 2019).

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/asi-stops-excavation-after-discovery-of-mysterious-bearded-man-in-skull-cap-image/articleshow/69778767.cms

[6] Times of India, Citizens complain to Archaeological Survey of India about illegal excavation work by PMC, Manish Umbrajkar / TNN / Updated: Dec 23, 2012, 21:43 IST.

[7] Citizens groups who had first complained to the Pune Municipal Corporation about the illegal excavation activity within the protected zone of Grade I ancient site Pataleshwar caves, have now sent letters to the Archaeological Survey of India in Mumbai.

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/citizens-complain-to-archaeological-survey-of-india-about-illegal-excavation-work-by-pmc/articleshow/17734378.cms

[8] Tom raiding has been the act of opening or stealing from (ancient) tombs in order to obtain valuable items or antiquities, typically with the intention of selling them. It is a belief  that the grave goods of the tombs contain valuables like diamonds, gold jewelry, silver articles and so on. Of course, whatever antique is recovered that is valuable in the antique market.

[9] Indian Express, PTR to unveil ancient DNA lab at Madurai Kamaraj University on Thursday, Jeyalakshmi Ramanujam, Updated on: 16 Nov 2022, 5:31 am.

[10] https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2022/Nov/16/ptr-to-unveil-ancient-dna-lab-at-madurai-kamaraj-university-on-thursday-2518644.html

[11] Reconstructing Indian population history (Nature 2009). Nature (news, podcast) BBC Radio, Reuters

[12] Lotus Times, Ancient DNA Lab opened in MKU; helps in genetic studies and data analysis for Archaeology Department’s excavations in Tamil Nadu, By Shastry V Mallady Nov 17, 2022, 19:27 Pm

[13] https://www.lotustimes.org/2022/11/17/ancient-dna-lab-opened-in-mku-helps-in-genetic-studies-and-data-analysis-for-archaeology-departments-excavations-in-tamil-nadu/

[14] Times of India,  Rs 3cr ‘ancient DNA lab’ to study excavated artefacts in TN: Minister, M T Saju / TNN / Updated: Aug 25, 2020, 10:57 IST

[15] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/rs-3cr-ancient-dna-lab-to-studyexcavated-artefacts-in-tn-min/articleshow/77730097.cms

The “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem – a relook into the old issues (3)

Maxmuller who created “Aryan” and Robert Caldwell who manufactured “Dravidian” out of linguistics!

The Dravidian problem: . But, surprisingly, none of these words – Dravid, viz., Dravida, Dravidi, Dravidam, Damila, Dramila, Dravida, dravida and their derivatives – is found in the ‘sangam literature’, generally represented by Pattuppattu, ettuttogai and Padinkizhkanakku.

Even in Tevaram[1], only ‘Tamizhan’ was used in the expression, “Seen Aryan, seen Tamizhan”. Only Tayumanavar of 18th century uses the word “Dravidam”, that too, to denote the Tamil language[2].

 “Nama thipa nikhandu”[3], a Tamil lexicon assigned to 7, 8 or 11^th century mentions ‘dravidam’ as one of the words used for Tamil.

“Senthan Divakaram”, another Tamil lexicon of 9^th century mentions that ‘Dravidam’ as one of the eighteen languages spoken.

A later work “Kanthanthu Upadesa Kandam” mentions that Lord Shiva revealed to Agastya the grammar of proud language ‘Dravidam’. The authors of “Prayoga Vivegam”  explain that the Sanskrit word “Tramilam” had been changed to “Tamil”, but the modern (Dravidian) scholars refute this strongly and assert that only the word ‘Tamil’ had been pronounced and used as ‘Dravida’ by the Sanskrit scholars.

Sivagnana Yogi also mentions that Sanskrit scholars used the word “Dravidam” symbolically to denote “Ten mozhi” (the language of south), that is Tamil[4]. Therefore, it is evident that the forms of ‘dravid’ and their usage by Tamils and Tamil poets were not in vogue upto 18^th century. Thus, it is very clear that Tamils were not only unfamiliar with the usage of the word ‘Dravida’, but also started to denote it for their language only in the modern period, particularly about the advent of the European scholars in south India.

Anthropometry of ‘Dravidians’: Huxley (1871), Haeckal, Turner (1900), G. Oppoert, Risely (1908), E. Thruston (1909), Seligman, Sclater and others have given different and varying anthropometric data and descriptions about ‘Dravidian race’ (Table-B). They have tried to compare them with the Mediterranean, Negrito and Australoid races with the above racial parameters. Their stature / height varies from short to medium, skin / complexion from yellow brown / brown to black; head from mesocephalic to dolicocephalic; nore from broad to narrow and flat to narrow; eye colour from brown to black; hair from straight or wavy to curly but not woolly or frizzy; lips from thick to protruding and so on. If this is the racial picture of ‘Dravidians’, the picture given by the Tamil poets about the ancient Tamils is entirely different.

“Anthropometry” of the ancient Tamils: The Tamil poets have too meticulously described about head, eyes, hair, lips, ears, eyelids, hands, legs and body structure of the ancient Tamils at many places, but they never painted them with ‘black’ as has been done by the above ‘racist’ scholars. Indeed they have used different terminology for each characteristic e.g, uchi, talai, siram for head; kudimi, mayir, kundal, mudi, ori, alagam, ulai for hair; adi, siradi, sivanta adi, kal for feet; meni, uruvam, udal, agam, sariram, uru for body; euiru, muruval, pal for teeth; nodal, netri for forehead; kavul, tadai, movai for jaw; kannidazh, imai for eyelids; idazh, adaram, udadu for lips, these words are used with suitable adjectives to specify the physical characteristics of men and women. Each word is used appropriately to describe a morphological trait. Indeed, many poets, scholars and other personalities were named after a specific characteristic possessed by them,        e.g,

• Asiriyar Perungannan (the teacher with big eyes),
• Perungannan (a man with bigger eyes),
• Ilangannan (a man with youthful eyes),
• Sengannan (a man with reddish eyes),
• Nettimaiyar (a man with lengthy eye brows),
• Naraimudi nettiyar (a man with white hair and high stature),
• Irumbidattalaiyar (black colour haired headed man or a man with a strong head like a iron),
• Sittalai sattanar ( Sattanar with puss-head),
• Peruntalaiyar (a man with bigger head),

Pullatru eyitranar), Kazharkkiran eyitranar (men with characteristic teeth).

The ancient Tamil literature clearly mentions that the skin colour of the ancient Tamils were that of the ‘tender mango leaves’ (mamai). The kings had the colour that of Sun. The heroines have been described that they had bright colours body like ‘unsheathed sword’ with reddish hand and feet9. Interestingly, Kalittogai stresses that women should have big mons venris, shoulders and eyes and small forehead waist and feet, as such parameters were considered as good characteristics i.e, morphology.

Divergent theories about the origin of Dravidians: About the origins of ‘Dravidians’, Keans, Morries, Sclater, Turner, Ragozin, Caldwell, Perry, Smith, Hornell and Indian scholars including Kanakasabhai have propounded many interesting, but divergent hypotheses and theories based on mythology, philology, anthropometry, and other factors¹⁰. They can be broadly grouped and explained as follows:

1. Central Asian Origins: From the comparisons of morphological and some linguistic similarities, some scholars considered that Dravidians cam from Central Asia. Caldwell delved much on the ‘Scythian’ origins. Here, they coolly forgot the other famous hypotheses / theories that ‘Aryans’ also came from Central Asia. It is really surprising the if both “Aryans’ and ‘Dravidians’ come from ‘Central Asia’, then why they should have been pitted against each other for all Indian historical processes?

1. West Asian Origins: As the west Asia had several ancient civilizations, it was argued that ‘Dravidians’ must have been originated from one of such civilizations by intermixing or interbreeding.
2. Diffusion theory: Tracing all civilizations to an Egyptian and Mediterranean source, it was argued that ‘Dravidians’ were a branch of Mediterranean race evolved consequent to miscegenation of Mediterranean and West Asian elements.
3. North-Indian and Trans-Himalayan Origins: Before, the advent of ‘Aryans’, ‘Dravidians’ were living in the north including north-eastern ad western parts of India. When the ‘Aryans’ started occupying, the Dravidians had to spread towards south. The Trans-Himalyan origins locate ‘Dravidians’ beyond Himayalas like Tbert, from where they entered India from the north east. Here, how the ‘Aryan’ factor has also been taken into consideration to explain the advent of ‘Dravidians’ in India, can easily be noticed. Interestingly, however, no scholar has ever propounded the ‘Dravidian invasion’ hypothesis or theory so far.
4. Lemurian or Kumari continent Origins: To counter the above ‘out of India’ or ‘foreign’ origins, it was argued that ‘Dravidians’ came from the submerged ‘Kumari’ or ‘Lemuria’ continent.

Conclusion: The present scientific genetic study of race or human origin tracing it to Africa, non-Africa, European-Neandarthal etc., has also been briefly explained. Skin colour, cephalometry (measurement of skull), craniometry, craniology (dolichocephalic, mesocephalic, brachycephalic), phrenology, hair colour, teeth measurement, lips, eyes colour, nasal index, blood and other factors were taken, studied in the laboratories and created race. In the same way, now cell, genes, chromosomes, mitochondria and other microbiological organisms is taken and studied to find out the human origin with purity or without any miscegenation. However, both scientific studies and methodologies applied appear to go back to same race, and racial superiority and thus, trying to differentiate and discriminate against humanity. Therefore, such studies can be avoided for the welfare of humanity.

In the study of ancient Tamil literature, with a view to find out the meaning and position of ‘Ariyar’ as mentioned in their context, it has been pointed out that ‘Ariyar’ were the people or kings of north of Tamizhagam and also of Tamizghagam considering the various descriptions of them. Literary evidences of ancient Tamizhagam with other epigraphic, numismatic and literary evidences of contemporary kings of Maurya, Kalinga and Satavahana show that the exploits of Tamil kings were perhaps restricted to the boundaries of the ancient Tamizhagam and the defeat of ‘Ariya’ or northern king or kings refers to the defeat of Andhra king or kings. The word ‘Ariya’ was also used as an honorific title to certain professionals, besides the generic usage to denote the people of the land with the boundaries of the Himalayas. As the names Kosar, Nandar, Moriar, Tondaiyar and Vadugar have been used to indicate individual groups of the north, and the name ‘Ariya’ is used to denote the people or kings who were living or ruling immediately in the north of Tamizhagam, it is very evident that no racial connotation was given to ‘ariyar’ by the ancient Tamils.

Many European scientists took much interest in Indian chronology, history, social institutions etc., the examples of Sir Isaac Newton and Joseph Priestley are given above.

In the case of ‘Aryan race’, Max Mueller confessed,

“I have declared again and again that if I say Aryan, I mean neither blood nor bones,, nor hair, nor skull, I mean simply those who speak an Aryan language……………To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, as great sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolicocephalic dictionary or brachycephalic grammar”.

This type of ideological studies also do not bring any peace or harmony, but pit two groups of people against each and thus the dominant group would be threatening and exploiting the other one. Thus, all these studies have not been uniting people and humanity.

Note: There was a discussion for about 40 minutes, many questions asked and clarification given. For convenience and brevity, they have been included in the above write-up at the appropriate places and context. those who attended the lecture could find the difference and others read conveniently.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-06-2024

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[1] Tevaram of Tirugnana Sambandar, 6^th Tirumarai, 23^rd Padigam, Tirumaraikkadu-6479.

In another place, he says, “Aryan with chaste Tamil” – 46^th Padigam, Tirumarakkadu-6710.

Here, both ‘Aryan’ and ‘Tamizhan’ refer to God Shiva.

[2] சித்தர்கணம்.10:9.

[3] Sivasubramanya Kavirayar, NamaThipa Nikandu, Thanjavur University, 1985.

[4] Sabapathy Navalar, Dravida Prakasikai, Madras, 1899, p.7.

The “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem – a relook into the old issues (2)

The  “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem  – a relook into the old issues (2)

Paditruppattu (the Ten tens): It gives more information about ‘Ariyar’ in a historical setting. The entire extant collection of poems with the deeds and exploits of the Chera Kings. The first and tenth Tens are not available. In the Second Ten, the Patigam (Preface) describes how Imayavaramban Nedunjeraladhan engraved his royal sign ‘bow’, which figures on his flag, on the top of the Himalayas (lines 4-7). Having roaring oceans has his boundaries (imizh kadal velittamizhagam), he ruled Tamizhagam (the Tamil country) in such a way to excel the other nadus (countries). He made ‘Ariyar’ bow before him, who were having very great name (fame and heritage).

In the Second Ten, the 11^th verse details as to how the very famous Himalayas abound with “Ariyas”. Hence, scholars give two different meanings for the ‘Ariyar’:

1. ‘Ariyar” = Munivar (rishis) and
2. “Ariyar’ = ‘Ariya mannar’ ( Aryan kings) .

The hillside was resplendent with densely and well grown trees of erthrina indica (mullu murukka), a kind of citrus and the yak sleeping there would dream of waterfalls and sweet smelling grass. The Himalayas with such fertility was filled with many rishis. In between the Himalayas (in the north) and Kumari in the South, there were Kings who boasted their valour but they were conquered by Nedunjeraladhan. The meaning is thus rendered, “You quelled the valour of those who called themselves monarchs of the land between Camorin in the South and the famous Himalayas, where the Ariyas² abound and yak sleeps on the hills covered thick with the Oleander and dreams of the broad mountain stream and the narandam (lemon-grass?)”

In fifth Ten, the patigam mentions ‘vadavar’, i,e, the people of north and ‘Ariya Annal’ i.e, head of Ariya Kings. It describes how the kings of the north were afraid of Kadal Prakkottiya Senguttuvan [Senguttuvan, a Chera King who had a navy that sailed on the ocean]. He marched with his army to bring a good stone for chiseling an image of the goddess of chastity. He came across a head or chief of Ariya Kings, while passing through forests, and defeated him. Then, he brought a stone and washed it in waters of the Ganges. While coming back, he stayed at Irumbil, destroyed Viyaur and Kodungur. He also killed a king named Pazhaiyon.

In the same fifth Ten, the 43^rd verse mentions the defeat of kings who were ruling between the Himalayas in the north and Kumari in the south as boundaries. However, the names of the kings or the countries thus defeated are not given in the poem. In the padigam, the kings are mentioned as the ‘vadavar’ (the Kings of north), the Chiefs of ‘Ariyar’ are called ‘Ariya Annal’, but here they are generally mentioned as ‘Ariya arasar’, i.e, the Kings between the Himalayas and Kumari.

Seventh Ten, the 68^th poem narrates how the people who were living in the north or northern direction, were leading a fearless, peaceful and happy life. The expression used to denote them is ‘vadapula vazhnar’.

So from the description of Paditruppattu, we can see that ‘Ariyar’ are –

• ‘the Kings of the North’,
• ‘Rishis of the Himalayas’,
• ‘the Kings between the boundaries of Himalayas and Kumari’ and
• ‘the people of the north or northern direction of Tamilagam’.

Agananuru (or Neduntogai): It also gives more details about ‘Ariyar’. ‘Ariyars’ capture elephants by the use of trained female elephants. A public woman takes a vow that she would chain her hero with her hair just as the ‘Ariyar’ make the wild elephant domesticated with the she-elephant. Mullaippattu throws light on their employment by the kings of Tamilagam to train elephants.

In another poem, a harlot wishes her bangles may be broken just like the army of ‘Ariyars’, which was defeated by the Kurumba bowmen who fought under the Cholas, with their shower of arrows, victorious spears and the black buckler. Here, also the names of the defeated ‘Ariyars’ are not given, but it is mentioned that they were defeated at Vallam (Tanjore).

Paranar3 in his poem eulogises Senguttuvan that he attacked the Aryar so as to make them scream, carved his emblem bow on the very famous mountain and chained the ferocious Kings. Here one can notice that the name of the mountain is not specified and it is mentioned in singular. As the Himalayas are always mentioned in the plural to denote a chain of mountains, a doubt arises as to whether the poet actually alludes to the Himalayas or to a certain ‘very famous, ancient and well grown’ mountain situated north of Tamizhagam in those days.

Agam.386 narrates how an Ariya wrestler was defeated by one Panan. The Ariya wrestler was known as ‘Ariya Porunan’ and Panan was another wrestler, whose state was in the north of Tamizhagam (Agam.325). Panan wrestled with Ariya Porunan and crushed his shoulders and arms, the sight of which made Kanaiyan, the commander of Chera army, feel ashamed.

Agam 398 accounts how rain protects and causes to flourish the region of the tall mountain of Ariyar, where gold is found. In the poem, the heroine’s native place, full of flower groves is compared to the above region of the mountain. Here, also the name of the mountain is not mentioned.

So, according to Agananuru, ‘Ariyar’ were –

• the people who captured and trained elephants,
• who got defeated by the Cholas at Vallam,
• who were the Kings of the north, conquered and chained by Senguttuvan and
• who were in possession of a mountain where gold was available.

As there was a wrestler known as ‘Ariya Porunan’, the name should imply either that he was an Ariya or he came from the north. But, it should be noted that Panan, who defeated Ariya Porunan and came from a state situated north of Tamizhagam, was not given the prefix of ‘Ariya’. Therefore, it is evident that there were Ariya wrestlers, just like Ariya jugglers, tumblers or rope dancers, elephant trainers and trainers in Tamizhagam.

Purananuru: In one poem4, Kovur Kizhar, a Tamil poet, describes how the kings of the north were afraid of Cholan Naklankilli that they were spending their nights without sleep. Marudanila Naganar, another poet5 describes how Pandiyan Kudakartattutunjiya Maran Vazhudi was having a chariot to wage a fierce war to kill the kings of the north (vadapula mannar). Actually, the poet eulogises Maran Vazhudi who is said to have caused ‘northern kings to fade’. But, particulars given about the names of such northern kings or countries and the place or places where he defeated them in the battles are not at all given. There is a mention⁶ of a type of a sandal paste of ‘northern mountain’ (vadakundrattuchandanam), Agananuru also refers to this⁷. But here also, the name of the northern mountain is not mentioned. Thre important point to be noted is, though the expressions ‘vadapulattarasar’, ‘vadapulamannar’ and ‘vadakundram’ are used to denote the kings of the north and northern mountain, the prefix ‘Ariyar’ is conspicuously missing. Therefore, it is very evident that there were northern kings and northern mountains other than Ariya kings of north and northern mountain of ‘Ariyar’.

‘Ariyar’ denotes what? From  the foregoing discussion about the word ‘Ariyar’ and its forms mentioned in the ancient Tamil literature, it is evident that they would come under the following categories:

‘Ariyar’ are –

1. the people who were living immediately north of Tamizhagam or Vengadam.
2. the kings who were ruling immediately north of Tamizhagam or Vengadam.
3. the jugglers, tumblers, rope-dancers or acrobats of Tamizhagam.
4. the Rishis or saints of the northern mountain of Tamizhagam or Himalayas.
5. the elephant captors and / or trainers.
6. the groups or kings who waged wars against Tamil kings or chiefs coming from north.
7. the honorific title ‘Ariya’ was used to respect certain professionals like wresrtlers, poets or king-cum-poets of Tamizhagam.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-06-2024

The “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem – a relook into the old issues (1)

The  “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem  – a relook into the old issues (1)

A talk on Aryans and Dravidians: As a part of the lecture series of the Indological Research Institute (IRI), on 08-06-2024, Dr K. V. Ramakrishna Rao IRS (Retd.,) spoke about the  “Ariyar” in the Sangam literature and the Dravidian problem. The lecture has been summarized and added with the points discussed after the lecture. Though, leading historians have also accepted the myth of racial Aryans, now the genetic experts, heritadary researchers and inherited pundits have revived the same pseudo-scientific race concepts in different forms. In 1989, Romila Thapar[1] also pointed out the fallacy of carrying over of these myths by Indian scholars and Educational curricula:

“The theory of Aryan race arose out of European preoccupations and preconceptions and was applied to the early Indian past during the period of the colonial interpretation of Indian history. It does not have its roots in Indian view of the past. Nevertheless, it has been accepted and has become an axiom of Indian historical interpretation. Whereas scholars working on the European past have questioned this theory, we in India hold fast onto it and those who attempt alternate interpretations of the sources are few and far between”.

However, later, she has been equivocal[2]. Earlier, during the 19^th and 20^th centuries, in spite of the fact that race and language were two separate entities, the race experts, racist historians and racialist scientists propounded about many races. Now in 21^st century also similar hypotheses are floated based on the DNA studies.

A brief on modern theory – Aryans and Dravidians discussed on the genetic studies: According to the “out of Africa” hypothesis, the human species, having evolved to its modern form in East Africa some 150,000 years ago, thereafter embarked on populating the entire globe in a stepwise migration process beginning about 70,000–90,000 BP.  However, the dates change depending upon the number of samples, such species found at different places in Africa, all humans share a relatively recent common ancestry, but the story in the deeper past is more complicated than our species evolving in just a single location or in isolation[3], the tools used etc. As the researchers have not been agreeing with each other, the debate continues generally focused on two models—recent African origin (Stringer and Andrews 1988[4]) and multiregional evolution (Wolpoff, Wu, and Thorne 1984[5]). A morphological advantage of the modern phenotype— possibly reducing childbirth mortality—is proposed as the cause of the transition[6].  The miscegenation always poses a challenge and they could not fix it, where it happened first and ten continued for the millions of years to settle down with some definite anatomy, morphology or any other anthropological factor. The debate of miscegenation continues with diffusion and migration leading to admixture and interbreeding.

Neandarthal versus “out of Africa” (OOA)?: Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) are archaic hominids, supposed to be most similar to modern humans. These hominids, extinct members of the Homo genus, populated Europe and parts of western and central Asia before their disappearance 25,000 years ago (Tattersall, 1995). Fossil evidence suggests that Neanderthals probably coexisted with anatomically modern humans (i.e. Cro-Magnon) for 20,000 years (Finlayson et al., 2006).

• Neanderthals have been shown to share more genetic variants with present-day non-Africans than Africans. Recent admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans outside of Africa was proposed as the most parsimonious explanation for this observation[7].
• Recent studies have found evidence of introgression from Neanderthals into modern humans outside of sub-Saharan Africa. Given the geographic range of Neanderthals, the findings have been interpreted as evidence of gene exchange between Neanderthals and modern humans descended from the Out-of-Africa (OOA) migration. 
• Further analyses suggest that these differences are likely due to recent non-African admixture in these populations. After accounting for recent non-African admixture, the results do not support the alternative model of older (e.g., >100 kya) admixture between modern humans and Neanderthal-like hominids within Africa[8].
• The claim of Neandarthal is revealed in other scientific interpretations also. Detecting archaic introgression in modern humans without using an unadmixed reference panel reveals higher Neanderthal ancestry in African individuals than previously seen and suggests that back-to-Africa migrations contributed to this signal.[9]

Genetic interpretation of race: The conception of “race” here proposed is based upon the following fundamental postulates:

(1) that the original ancestral species population was genetically relatively heterogeneous;

(2) that by migration away from this original ancestral group, individual families became dispersed over the earth;

(3) that some of the groups thus dispersed became geographically isolated from one another and remained so isolated for more or less considerable periods of time;

(4) that upon all these isolated groups several of the following factors came into play as conditions leading to evolutionary change:

(a) the genetic drift or inherent variability of the genotypic, materials composing each individual member of the group;

(b) physical change in the action of a gene associated, in a partial manner, with a particular character, that is, gene mutation.

Going back to old theories: Ever since the advent of “Ariyar” in Indian history, the word “Aryan” has assumed significance and far-fetching linguistic and racial connotations. Then came, the advent of “Dravidians”. Caldwell’s linguistic invention was given a racial twist by the Westerners and Indian scholars, though the concept of race and language are two separate entities. Leaving these hypotheses and theories aside, an attempt is made in this paper to study the word “Ariyar” as found in the ancient Tamil literature, popularly known as Tamil Sangam literature. In the ancient Tamil literature, the word “Ariyar”, “Ariyan”, “Ariya” etc., are found in various places with their other forms and have been used both as nouns and adjectives.

Natrinai: It is the heading the list of Ettuttogai and its general theme is love. The word “Ariyar” appears in the 170^th poem, sung by an unknown poet. The companion of the heroin of the poem wants that the hero might be seduced by the beautiful lonely dancing girl. She compares the victory of the Virali (the dancer), who came to a festival clad in a leaf-garment, over her group to the fact that the famous town of Mullur, the “Ariya” soldiers swarmed, but ran away before the lance-battalion of Malayan (a Cheran), who unsheathed a shining sword and attacked with his large army. From this, we can see that the people who came from the north to attack Cheras were known as “Ariyar”.

Kuruntogai: Literally meaning ‘a collection of short poems’, it comes next and its theme is also love. The word “Ariyar” appears in the verse 7, line 3. Here, it is described how “Ariyars” dance on a tied rope according to the beatings of a drum. “The forest full of bamboos were rattled the white ripe seeds of shivering vakai tree (Sirisa tree) tossed by the wind like the drumming of the “Ariyar” dancing on the rope”. Therefore, here it is evident that “Ariyar” refers to a group of jugglers or tumblers, who performed acrobatics.

© K. V. Ramakrishna Rao

12-06-2024

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[1] Romila Thapar, Which of us are Aryans?, Seminar – 364, December, 1989, Nrew Delhi, pp.14-18.

[2] Thapar, Romila. “Can genetics help us understand Indian social history?.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6.11 (2014): a008599.

[3] Aaron Ragsdale, a population geneticist at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, says to Reuters’ Will Dunham. Reported on May 25, 2023.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/dna-suggests-modern-humans-emerged-from-several-groups-in-africa-not-one-180982242/

[4] stringer, c. b., and p. andrews. 1988. Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans. Science 239: 1263–68.

[5] wolpoff, m. h., x. wu, and a. g. thorne, 1984. “Modern Homo sapiens origins: A general theory of human evolution involving the fossil evidence of East Asia,” in The origins of modern humans. Edited by F. H. Smith and F. Spencer, pp. 411–83. New York: Alan Liss.

[6] Eswaran, Vinayak. “A diffusion wave out of Africa: The mechanism of the modern human revolution?.” Current Anthropology 43.5 (2002): 749-774.

[7] Yang, Melinda A., et al. “Ancient structure in Africa unlikely to explain Neanderthal and non-African genetic similarity.” Molecular biology and evolution 29.10 (2012): 2987-2995.

[8] Wang, Shuoguo, et al. “Apparent variation in Neanderthal admixture among African populations is consistent with gene flow from non-African populations.” Genome biology and evolution 5.11 (2013): 2075-2081.

[9] Chen, Lu, et al. “Identifying and interpreting apparent Neanderthal ancestry in African individuals.” Cell 180.4 (2020): 677-687.